INTRODUCTIONThe Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, and Aztec religions all had a concept of a vital force that separated living from nonliving matter (Marcus 1994:343). For the Maya this was expressed in the concept of "ik," or wind, breath, or life. For the Zapotecs it was "pee" or wind, breath, or spirit. For the Mixtec it was ""yni" or "ini" or spirit, heart, or heat. For the Aztec it was "tona" or vital energy, or heat. As animists, the line drawn as to what was alive, was different from the Judeo-Christian tradition. They attributed life to many things which the Spaniards, for example, did not (Id.). The idea of human sacrifice was one of the more notable shared concepts of these religions which were concerned with keeping the cosmos in balance through human action.
Index to this topic: |Maya |Mixtec |Zapotec |Aztec |Photo |Other Topics|
MAYA RELIGION
The perceived relationship between humans and supernaturals
According to Robert Sharer: "All things, whether animate or inanimate, were imbued with an unseen power. In some cases –especially the ‘spirits’ inhabiting rocks, trees, and other objects (a concept we call animism) – the invisible power was amorphous. In other cases the unseen power was embodied in a ‘deity’ perceived to take animallike (zoomorphic) or humanlike (anthropomorphic) form. . . . In its normal state the world was seen as an ordered place. Order, the foundation of the Maya world, stemmed from the predictable movements of the ‘sky wanderers,’ the sun, moon, planets, and stars that marked the passage of time. Each of these celestial bodies was animate, a deity by our definition. Human destiny was linked with these celestial beings, and when cataclysmic events overwhelmed the Maya world, as they did from time to time, the sky wanderers and the calendar based books of prophecy would be consulted to find portents of change. Once found and recorded, such portents explained the disorder that had fallen upon the world and thus allowed the world order to be restored" (Sharer 1994:514).
Principal beliefs and major gods
The Maya believed in blood sacrifice to keep the cosmos in balance and a sacred ceiba or "tree of life." The cosmos according to the Maya Popol Vuh creation myth, and the Dresden Codex, had been through several cycles of birth and then destruction by deluge. Hunab Ku was the creator god and the Old Woman Goddess, the patron god of death and destruction, held the bowl from which the deluges occurred. A serpentlike creature constituted the Milky Way. The Hero Twins, Hunapu (associated with the celestial, the sun, and life) and Xbalanque (associated with the underworld, the jaguar, Venus, and death) travel to Xibalba, the underworld, and return - outsmarting the lords of death by tricking them. They were reborn as the sun and Venus. Sharer has described several of the principal beliefs as follows: "The myth of the Hero Twins was one of the central axioms of ancient Maya life and ritual. It demonstrated how extraordinary humans could enter Xibalba, outwit the gods of death, and return, and thus was a metaphor for the greatest life force in the cosmos, the sun which emerges from Xibalba every morning. . . . The myth also demonstrated that rebirth is possible only through sacrifice (the twins were reborn after sacrifice by both fire and decapitation), and thus was a metaphor for life after death. Sacrifice and rebirth was a theme specifically celebrated by the Maya ritual of human sacrifice . . . and in the Maya centers the ballcourt was seen as the threshold between this world andd Xibalba, the arena for confrontation; the ritualized ballgame played therein reenacted the original contest between the Hero Twins and the gods of death. The myth of the Hero Twins highlights another axiom in Maya ideology, the strongly dualistic theme seen in the eternal struggle - between the powers of good and the powers of evil - over the destiny of many. . . . For the Maya, openings in the surface of the earth were the entrances to Xibalba , and therefore especially sacred and dangerous places. . . . The places where the Maya lived, from the smallest house to the largest city, were conceived of as symbolic representations of their universe. . . . People who committed suicide by hanging or who were sacrificed, warriors killed in battle, women who died in childbirth, priests, and rulers went directly to the Maya paradise. . . . The deification of deceased rulers, and their veneration in funerary shrines, was an elaborated expression of ancestor worship, a theme that probably permeated ancient Maya religion. " (Sharer 1994:523-6). Major Maya gods included Itzamna, a reptilian deity, Kinich Ahau, a sun deity, Chac, a rain deity, Bolon Tza’cab, a ruling-lineage deity, Yum Kaax, a maize deity, Yum Cimil, a death deity, Ah Chicum Ek, a North Star deity, Ek Chuah, a merchant deity, Bulac Chabtan, a war and human sacrifice deity, Ix Chel, a rainbow deity, and many others (Id. at 528-36). There were thirteen deities in the Upper World and nine deities in the Lower World (Id.).
Expression of religious themes in art and writing
The worship of the images of deities and human sacrifice appear on pottery incensarios, masks, monuments, polychrome pottery, and graffitti inscribed on walls (Id. at 516). At Palenque the funeral slab over the deceased, expresses religious themes of the ruler’s fall into the underworld at the moment of death. Images of blood sacrifice by rulers appear on stelae, walls of buildings, paintings on walls, and in codices. The painted scenes on Classic period pottery "appear to represent aspects of Maya myth and ritual" (Id. at 528).
The "ideological" function of religion in the society
The Maya religion explained natural forces that were not well understood and organized the cosmos into an ordered place. Its ideological function was to comfort individuals, unify the society, and justify wars and the authority of the ruling elites.
Religion and the needs of the state: the relationship between religion and political, military, and economic institutions
Maya religion was probably the major ideological justification for the Maya political, military, and economic institutions. By building temples, for example, the rulers enhanced their own prestige and authority to rule, and created social unification. The use of war to obtain captives for sacrifice probably overlapped nicely with a ruler’s desire to militarily "decapitate" neighboring polities to obtain economic tribute and eventually to expand their territory. Building pyramidal structures also probably reinforced and reminded the people of their place in the pyramidal hierarchy and structure of society.
Index to this topic: |Maya |Mixtec |Zapotec |Aztec |Photo |Other Topics|
ZAPOTEC RELIGION
The perceived relationship between humans and supernaturals
Anything that moved had "pee" and was alive. Anything animate was somewhat sacred and had had to be approached with some ritual and sense of reciprocity (Marcus 1994:345). Animate things included: animals, men, the 260 day ritual calendar, the moon, light, "the effervescent foam on a cup of stirred hot chocolate," etc. (Id.). Living supernatural forces included such things as clouds, earthquakes, and lightning (Id.).
Principal beliefs and major gods
Zapotec religion was animatistic. Although not monotheists, "they did recognize a supreme being who was without beginning or end, ‘ who created everything but was not himself created,’ but he was so infinite and incorporeal that no images were ever made of him" (Marcus 1994:345). "This supreme being had, in turn, created a series of powerful supernatural forces including lightning, sun, earthquake, fire, and clouds which interacted with the Zapotecs but cannot be considered the equivalent of a Greco-Roman pantheon. . . .An important aspect of Zapotec religion was ancestor worship, especially the veneration of royal ancestors" (Id.).
Expression of religious themes in art and writing
Zapotec writing and art frequently showed sacrificed conquered captives and royal genealogies. Human sacrifice and the veneration of ancestry were prominent themes in Zapotec art and writing.
The "ideological" function of religion in the society
The religion that justified the capture and sacrifice of captives (who also happened to be the leaders of competing polities) justified the payment of tribute and provided new agricultural land to support the ruling elites. Professional religious practitioners also probably helped to integrate or unify Zapotec society.
Religion and the needs of the state: the relationship between religion and political, military, and economic institutions
The Zapotec religion was intertwined with politics, the military, and the economy and justified the rule of elites who could show long genealogies and a connection to the supernatural. Zapotec religion also justified creation of large religiously important public buildings that enhanced the prestige of elites, and justified wars to capture neighboring rulers to keep the supernatural and natural forces in balance.
Index to this topic: |Maya |Mixtec |Zapotec |Aztec |Photo |Other Topics|
MIXTEC RELIGION
The perceived relationship between humans and supernaturals
Mixtec religion worshipped the forces of nature including life, death and an afterlife (Spores 1994:342). The deities were represented with images associated with war, the sun, human sacrifice, fertility, rain, wind, air, etc. (Id.). The sun was the deity held in the highest esteem (Id.). Humans were obligated "to maintain the balance among men, nature, and the supernatural world through conscious acts of private and social ritual" (Id. at 344). Blood sacrifice from the ears and tongue, and bird feathers were sometimes offered. Dances were sometimes given. Human and animal sacrifices were sometimes made including heart sacrifices (Id.).
Principal beliefs and major gods
The development and use of a calendar for astrological and divination purposes is illustrated by the lore surrounding the calendar round of 52 years and the yearly cycles (Id.). New fire ceremonies indicated a renewal of the world. People originally emerged from a natural world that was already existing (Id. at 344). There is no sequential creation, destruction, and recreation cosmology like the Maya. Principal gods besides those recounted above, included ones associated with the planets, war, health, fertility, weather, etc. Each community had its own deity associated with it and there is no hierarchy particularly apparent in the supernatural universe, unlike the Aztec religion.
Expression of religious themes in art and writing
Religious activity centered around temples, hermitages, and shrines in urban areas and caves, rivers, rocky promontories, mountaintops, and abandoned settlements elsewhere (Id.). The temple might also have what the Spaniards described as an "oracle" and "idols" (Burgoa 1674, vol.1:276). The death deity is sometimes shown cutting the heart out of the loser of a ball court game.
The "ideological" function of religion in the society
According to Spores: "The sacred caves, springs, peaks, groves, and unusual natural features associated with the supernatural realm had a great attraction for the Mixtecs and served as a vital foci of social integration" (Spores 1994:343). The building and use of urban temples, hermitages, and shrines probably also had the same ideological function of unifying the society.
Religion and the needs of the state: the relationship between religion and political, military, and economic institutions
The relative lack of stratification in the supernatural world may reflect a less hierarchically stratified society (Id. at 345). Ethics and good conduct was not particularly associated with religion and the conduct of the supernatural deities did not provide "models" of conduct as in some other cultures (Id.). Military wars of conquest, and captive sacrifice were justified by the religion which was interwoven with the control of the society by elites and promoted social unification with the construction of large public temples and building projects.
Index to this topic: |Maya |Mixtec |Zapotec |Aztec |Photo |Other Topics|
AZTEC RELIGION
The perceived relationship between humans and supernaturals
Every 52 years fires were put out, cooking implements, hearthstones, and idols were thrown out of the house, individual blood sacrifices were performed and a human sacrifice was performed by priests personifying the deities in a cosmological attempt to renew the universe, avoid darkness and avoid celestial monsters coming down to eat all humans (Berdan 1982:119). The cyclical conception of time, mythological foundation of rituals, and "active, rather than passive, posture in relating to the supernatural" and preserving the universe were typically Aztec ( Id.). Human fate was influenced by actively performing rituals, and omens, divination, and astrology were important (Id. at 120).
Principal beliefs and major gods
Deities were plentiful, diverse, and like Aztec society were arranged hierarchically. The majority were anthropomorphic or human-like (Id. at 124). Space was also hierarchically ordered in horizontal and vertical dimensions (Id. at 122-3). There were five directions (which included the center) and 13 tiers above the earthe and 9 below (Id.). Ometecutli ("Lord of Duality") and Omecihuatl ("Lady of Duality") initially created all life and produced four sons named Tezcatlipoca who represented different cardinal directions and who were associated with different colors. Two of the sons, Quetzacoatl and Huitzilopochtli created fire, the first humans, the calendar, the underworld and its gods, the heavens, water and its gods, and the earth (Id. at 120) . Four ages, periods, or "suns" of 2028 years ensued and were terminated with cataclysms. Different humans in each period were destroyed or transformed. In the fifth or current "sun" Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl recreated heaven, earth, and the inhabitants (Id. at 121). Some deities required human blood for nourishment such as Tonatiuh, the sun god, and Huitzilopochtli, patron of the Mexica, and so war to obtain captives was undertaken and blood sacrifices including heart extraction were performed (Id. at 128).
Expression of religious themes in art and writing
Maya-like murals have been found that indicate blood sacrifices related to religious beliefs as well as battle murals. The Codex Mendoza is an example of a codex that survived the book burning of the Spaniards.
The "ideological" function of religion in the society
As in the other Mesoamerican societies, religion served to give authority to the rulers and elites, justify war, and provided social unity.
Religion and the needs of the state: the relationship between religion and political, military, and economic institutions
The desire to obtain captives for human sacrifice justified expansion of the Aztec state and eventually led to the downfall of the Aztecs who made many enemies among the people they subjugated. One controversial theory also holds that the Aztecs misinterpreted the appearance of the Spaniards in mythico-religious terms, thinking they fit descriptions in mythology, and the Emperor’s belief in the appearance of a comet as a bad omen signaling the fate of the Aztec empire, also probably did not contribute to an early spirit of resistance to the conquistadors. Religion and the priestly class were thus intertwined with the political, military, and economic institutions that led to both the rise and fall of the Aztec empire.
Index to this topic: |Maya |Mixtec |Zapotec |Aztec |Photo |Other Topics|
Topics
- Mesoamerican writing systems
- Mesoamerican governments
- Mesoamerican religions
- The Maya Calendar System
- Reconstructing Maya and Zapotec political organization
- How the Sky Works
- Definitions
- References Cited
- Home
Index to this topic: |Maya |Mixtec |Zapotec |Aztec |Photo |Other Topics|
Photo may be slow loading
Chacmool figure from El Templo Mayor
Copyrighted photograph taken by Clive Ruggles
Articles © 1997 Kevin L. Callahan
Email: call0031@tc.umn.edu
