1397: Giovanni de Medici Moves to Florence - Giovanni de Medici,
the papal banker, headquarters his business in Florence and becomes involved in
Florentine public life and patronage of the arts, laying the groundwork for the
rise of his son Cosimo de Medici to power.
1401: Ghiberti Wins the Right to Sculpt
the Northern Doors of The Baptistry - Ghiberti is commissioned and takes 28 years to sculpt the
bronze doors of the Florentine church. The doors remain one of the most valued
treasures of the Renaissance
1420: The Papacy Returns to
1423: Francesco Fosari Becomes Doge of
1429: Cosimo de Medici Takes Over his
Father's Business - Cosimo de Medici becomes head of
the bank after his father dies, using his economic power to consolidate
political power. Within five years he runs the city without question.
1447: Pope Nicholas V Ascends to the Throne - Pope Nicholas V
takes the first steps toward turning Rome into a Renaissance city, undertaking
many construction projects and strongly encouraging the arts.
1450: Francesco Sforza Seizes Control of
1453:
1454: Johann Gutenberg Prints the Gutenberg Bible - Gutenberg is
credited with the invention of the printing press in
1464: Lorenzo de Medici Ascends to Power in
1471: Sixtus IV Becomes Pope - Sixtus IV becomes pope, undertaking many successful
projects in
1486: Pico Publishes His Collection of 900 Treatises - Pico's
philosophy often conflicts with that of the Catholic Church and he is declared
a heretic. He is saved from demise by the intervention of Lorenzo de Medici.
1492: Rodrigo Borgia becomes Pope
Alexander VI - Alexander VI is widely known as a corrupt and manipulative pope,
scheming for his family's benefit. Many claim that the Papacy reaches its
greatest moral decline of the Renaissance during his pontificate.
1494: The Medici are Ousted from Florence by Girolamo
Savonarola - Savonarola, preaching a return to simple faith, leads a popular
uprising against the Medici, who are forced to flee. Savonarola's rule is
short-lived, and he is burned as a heretic in 1495.
1494: Ludovico Sforza
Permits the French Invasion of Italy - In an attempt to weaken his enemy, the
King of Naples, Ludovico invites the French to invade
1503: Pope Julius II Assumes the Papal Throne - The ascension of
Pope Julius II begins the Roman Golden Age, during which the city and Papacy
both prosper. Julius II reverses the trend of moral degradation in the Papacy
and takes great steps in the rebuilding of
1513: Pope Leo X Succeeds Julius II - Pope Leo X, the son of
Lorenzo de Medici, continues the trend of the Golden Age, proving himself a
gifted administrator and intelligent patron of the arts. Rome prospers.
1513: Niccolo Machiavelli Publishes The
Prince - Often considered the most influential political book of all time, The
Prince outlines the argument that it is better for a ruler to be feared than
loved.
1517: The Reformation Movement Begins - Martin Luther posts his 95
Theses on the door of a church in Wittenburg,
Germany, igniting a movement which provokes an enormous split in the Roman
Catholic Church.
1519: Leonardo da Vinci Dies - Leonardo,
perhaps the most remarkable individual of the Renaissance, dies in France,
having established himself as a painter, sculptor, engineer, and scientist.
1523: Pope Clement VII Ascends to the Throne - Pope Clement VII
comes to power in difficult times, following Pope Leo X. He soon proves himself
an incompetent politician, and his poor decisions lead to the sack of Rome.
May 6, 1527: The Sack of Rome - After Pope Clement VII refuses to
grant the imperial army a ransom, it attacks the city of Rome, taking the city
in just over twelve hours. The sack of Rome symbolizes the downfall of
Renaissance Italy, much of which is subjugated to Imperial-Spanish rule by the settlement of Bologna in 1530.
Boccaccio - One of the
first writers of the early Renaissance, Giovanni Boccaccio, a Florentine, is
most noted for writing the Decameron,
a series of 100 stories set in Florence during the Black Death that struck the
city in 1348. Boccaccio explores, in these stories, the traditions and
viewpoints of various social classes, greatly based on actual observation and
study.
Charles V - Charles V,
the Holy Roman Emperor during the early sixteenth century, was, by genetic good
fortune, heir to Spain, Burgundy, the Netherlands, Austria, and Naples, as well
as being claimant to Milan by imperial right. His forces harassed the Italian
city-states for years, finally gaining dominance over much of Italy in the
settlement of Bologna, in 1530.
Leonardo da Vinci - Perhaps the greatest single figure of the
Renaissance, Leonardo excelled in painting, sculpting, engineering, biology,
and many other fields. He traveled around Italy, and eventually France as well,
making observations on nature and seeking commissions. Many of his
contributions were ideas for inventions which were not built until long after
his death. His most famous completed work, the Mona Lisa, is the most famous portrait ever painted.
Isabella d'Este - Isabella d'Este
was perhaps the most powerful and most intelligent woman of the Renaissance.
She mastered Greek and Latin and memorized the works of the ancient scholars,
all the while excelling in the arts of singing, dancing, and playing musical
instruments. As the duchess of Mantua, she exerted a great amount of influence
over the politics, social life, and economics of the city, even ruling by herself when her husband was captured.
Donatello - The greatest sculptor of the early
Renaissance, Donatello was born Donato
di Niccolo di Betto Bardi.
Donatello studied under both Ghiberti
and Brunelleschi, and went on to create several
masterpieces for Cosimo de Medici in Florence. His
most important work is the David,
which depicts the Hebrew king in the classical style of a Greek god. David was the first freestanding nude
figure sculpted since the Roman era. Donatello went
on to create the first bronze statue of the Renaissance, showing an incredibly
realistic soldier on horseback.
Niccolo
Machiavelli - Niccolo Machiavelli may be the most
famed writer of the Renaissance. His most well known work, The Prince is a political handbook arguing that it is better for a
ruler to be feared than loved. It was a guidebook for the ruler
Machiavelli hoped would eventually unite Italy to drive out foreign
threats. The Prince argues that it is better for a ruler to be feared than
loved, and has served as a handbook by European leaders for centuries since its
publishing in 1513.
Cosimo
de Medici - In 1434, Cosimo de Medici consolidated
the power of Florence in his and his family's hands, beginning the reign of the
Medici that would last in Florence until the end of the Renaissance. Cosimo built up strong connections throughout Italy and
Europe in his capacity as a banker, and applied the wealth of Florence in
patronage of artistic and intellectual endeavors.
Lorenzo
de Medici - Lorenzo de Medici, known as 'Il Magnifico,'
was Cosimo's grandson. Lorenzo lived more elegantly
than had Cosimo, and enjoyed the spotlight of power
immensely. Under
his control,
the Florentine economy expanded significantly and the lower class enjoyed a
greater level of comfort and protection than it had before. During
the period of Lorenzo's rule, from 1469 to
1492,
Florence became undeniably the most important city-state in Italy and the most
beautiful city in all of Europe.
Michaelangelo - Michaelangelo
was one of the greatest artists of the High Renaissance. At a young age his
talent was spotted by Lorenzo de Medici and he was brought up in the Medici
palace. He went on to create some of the most famous works of the Renaissance,
carving the Pieta and painting the
walls and ceilings of the Sistine Chapel.
Francesco
Petrarch – often referred to as the founder of
humanism. As one of the first humanist
writers he explored modern life through the lens of the ancient Romans and Freeks, influencing with his works the later renaissance
writers and the spirit of the times.
Lucrezia Borgia - One of the
few notable women of the Renaissance, Lucrezia Borgia was the daughter of Pope Alexander VI, who used her
as a pawn in his attempts to gain political power. He married her first to the
duke of Milan, then to the illegitimate son of the King of Naples, and finally
to the duke of Ferarra, where she became an
influential member of the court.
Botticelli - A well-known painter of the Renaissance,
Botticelli was one of a circle of artists and
scholars sponsored by the Medici in Florence. He was fascinated by Neoplatonism, and many of his works are seen as great
examples of applied Neoplatonism.
Brunelleschi - Brunelleschi
was one of the great sculptors and architects of the early Renaissance. His
most famous contribution was the design of the dome of the cathedral of
Florence, which still dominates the Florentine skyline today.
Francesco Fosari - In 1423, Francesco Fosari
became doge of Venice. He ruled with excessive grandeur and exercised far
greater power than had past doges, aggressively pursuing a policy of western
expansion. To torment and control the doge, the Venetian Council of Ten falsely
accused his son, Jacopo, of treason, and began a long process during which
Jacopo was exiled, readmitted, tortured, and exiled again. Finally, when the
Council of Ten forced Fosari to resign, affirming its
power over the monarch.
Ghiberti - Ghiberti
was one of the earliest sculptors of the Renaissance. He developed techniques
for showing perspective that greatly influenced his followers throughout the
Renaissance. Ghiberti sculpted a pair of bronze doors
to a church in Florence which remain one of the greatest-admired treasures of
the Renaissance.
Giotto - Giotto was
one of the first painters of the Renaissance. He did groundbreaking work in the
realm of perspective and realism. Giotto's techniques
were instrumental in pursuing the goals of Renaissance art, and they greatly
affected the artists who followed.
Johann
Gutenberg - Gutenberg is credited with inventing the printing press in
Germany in 1454, and printing the first book, the Gutenberg Bible, ushering in the age of the printed book, during
which books became cheaper and more accessible to the general population.
Masaccio - Masaccio, a
nickname meaning 'Messy Tom', was born Tomasso Guidi. Masaccio is credited with
mastering perspective, and was the first Renaissance artist to paint models in
the nude, often using light and shadow to define the shape of his models rather
than clear lines. Masaccio's best known work is a
scene from the Bible called The Tribute
Money.
Pico - Pico was a
philosopher and writer of the Renaissance. His most famous work is a collection
of 900 philosophical treatises in which he expresses his belief in the free
will of man and the ability of individuals to commune with God without the
medium of a priest. Pico was declared a heretic, and only saved from demise by
the intervention of Lorenzo de Medici.
Pope
Alexander VI - Rodrigo Borgia, who took the
name Alexander VI upon rising to the papacy in 1492 and ruled until 1503, was a
corrupt pope bent on the advancement of his family through the political ranks
of Italy. While pope he turned many away from the church with his actions, and
his reign is considered by some to be the darkest era of the Papacy.
Pope Clement
VII - Pope Clement VII (1523-1534) ascended to the papal throne in
1523, following Pope Leo X. He arose during troubled times and proved a moral
man but a poor administrator, and his lack of political skill eventually led to
the sack of Rome.
Pope Julius
II - Pope Julius II (1503-1513) ascended to the papal throne in 1503,
and presided over the beginning of Rome's Golden Age. He ended the long string
of highly corrupt pontiffs and began the massive project of rebuilding St.
Peter's basilica.
Pope Leo X - Pope Leo X
(1513-1521) was the son of Lorenzo de Medici. A truly enlightened leader and
patron of the arts, he followed the reign of Julius II, ascending to the throne
in 1513. Pope Leo X continued the work begun during Julius II's
pontificate, rebuilding all of Rome, and most specifically, St. Peter's
basilica. His one grave error was to authorize the sale of indulgences to
finance this project, an action which prompted the beginning of the Reformation
movement.
Pope Nicholas
V - Pope Nicholas V (1447-1455) ascended to the Papacy in 1447 and
took the first steps necessary in resurrecting Rome. He began the rebuilding of
Rome as a Renaissance city, supporting the arts and reviving the city's
economy.
Pope Sixtus IV - Pope Sixtus IV
(1471-1484) is known for both the great steps taken under his rule to rebuild
Rome and his great corruption. Pope Sixtus IV
instituted nepotism as a way of life in Rome, and ran the Papacy as a family
operation.
Raphael - Hailed as
the greatest painter of the Renaissance, Raphael, born Rafaello
Sanzi, worked in Rome under papal commissions from
Pope Julius II and Pope Leo X, decorating much of the Vatican. The most widely
known of the series of murals and frescoes he painted is the School of Athens, which depicts an
imaginary assembly of famous philosophers. He was considered so important by
his contemporaries that when he died at the premature age of 37 he was buried
in the Pantheon.
Girolamo Savonarola - Savonarola attracted a following
starting in 1491, when he began preaching against the worldliness and paganism
of the Renaissance. He led the ousting of the Medici from Florence in 1494, and
assumed power, drafting a new draconian constitution, and attempting to revive
the medieval spirit. He ordered burned many books and paintings he considered
immoral. In 1495, Savonarola called for the deposal of Pope Alexander VI, was
declared a heretic, and burned at the stake.
Ludovico Sforza - Ludovico Sforza played the part
of the archetypical Italian Renaissance prince, surrounding himself with
intrigue and corruption. Though Ludovico was not the
rightful duke of Milan and was known to use coercion and manipulation to
achieve his political goals, for a time the city of Milan flourished in his
care. Under Ludovico, known as 'Il Moro," Milan
became extraordinarily wealthy and its citizens participated in a splendid and
excessive social culture.
Titian - Titian was
the most famous Venetian artist of the Renaissance. Born Tiziana
Vecellio, in the Italian Alps, he moved to Venice
early in life to study. Titian distinguished himself through the use of bright
colors and new techniques that gave those colors greater subtlety and depth.
Between 1518 and 1532 he served as court painter in Ferrara, Mantua, and Urbino. In 1532, he became the official painter to the Holy
Roman Emperor, Charles V, in which role he dabbled mainly in portraiture.
The city-states of Renaissance Italy
were at the center of Europe’s economic, political, and cultural life
throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. During the Middle Ages, the towns of Northern
Italy were under the control of the Holy Roman Empire; residents, however, were
basically free to decide their own fate, which resulted in many politic
differences. The old nobility, whose
wealth was based on land ownership, often conflicted with a new class of
merchant families who had become wealthly in the
economic boom of the 12th and 13th centuries. Both groups had to contend with an urban
underclass known as the ‘popolo’ who wanted their
share of the wealth and political power.
In Florence, in 1378, the popolo expressed
their dissatisfaction with the political and economic order by staging a
violent struggle against the government known as the Ciompi
revolt. This struggle rose in other
city-states and resulted in the rise of a tyrant or signor. The most powerful
being Cosimo de Medici and his grandson Lorenzo de Medici.
In 1434, Cosimo de Medici consolidated the power of
Florence in his and his family's hands, beginning the reign of the Medici that
would last in Florence until the end of the Renaissance. He built up strong connections throughout Italy
and Europe in his capacity as a banker, and applied the wealth of Florence in
patronage of artistic and intellectual endeavors. His grandson, Lorenzo de Medici, known as 'Il
Magnifico,' lived more elegantly than had Cosimo, and enjoyed the spotlight of power immensely. Under
his control, the Florentine economy expanded significantly and the lower class
enjoyed a greater level of comfort and protection than it had before. During
the period of Lorenzo's rule, from 1469 to 1492, Florence became undeniably the
most important city-state in Italy and the most beautiful city in all of
Europe.
The Italian City
states were far more economically active than the rest of Europe, with
merchants carrying Italian wool and silk to every part of the continent and
with Italian bankers providing loans for European Monarchs. Wealthy Italian merchants became important
patrons of the arts and insisted on the development of secular art forms, such
as portraiture, that would represent them and their wealth to the greatest
effect. Italy’s central location in the
Mediterranean was also ideal for creating links between the Greek culture of
the east and the Latin culture of the west.
Individualism – Behavoir or theroy which
emphasizes each person and is contrasted with
with corporate or community behavoir, or theory in which the group is emphasized at the
expense of the individual. Renaissance
individualism sought great accomplishments andd looks
for heroes of history.
Virtu – the
essence fo being a person throguh
the showing of human abilites. This ability ccould
be displaced in speech, art, politics, warfare, or elsewhere by seizing the
opportunities available.
Conditions
that led to the Renaissance in Italy:
1.
Because of the Crusades, and the new trade
routes, Europeans began to come in contact with other, more advanced
civilizations, which influenced them greatly.
2.
The
Church, due to the scandals that occurred, lost much of its power, and people
began to doubt its ultimate authority.
3.
Due to trade, the middle class grew, and
people began to accumulate vast sums of money. They then wanted to enjoy and
show off their wealth, which led to a philosophy of enjoying this life instead
of simply waiting for the next one.
4.
Competition between wealthy people for status
led to developments in education and art, since wealthy people, wanting to be
respected, would compete to see who was the most educated or had sponsored the
most artists.
Feudalism - A combined
economic and social system that defined the Middle Ages. Under feudalism,
societal classes were hierarchically divided based on their position in the
prevailing agrarian economy. The system produced a large number of scattered,
self-sufficient feudal units throughout Europe, made up of a lord and his
subservient vassals. These feudal lords constantly battled during the early
middle ages, their armies of peasants facing off to win land for their lords.
Humanism - Humanism
was the philosophical backbone of the Renaissance, emphasizing the potential
for individual achievement and stipulating that humans were rational beings
capable of truth and goodness. In keeping with the principles of humanism,
Renaissance scholars celebrated the works of the ancient Greeks and Romans for
their own sake, rather than for their relevance to Church doctrine.
1. Admiration and emulation of the Ancient
Greeks and Romans.
2. Philosophy of enjoying this life,
instead of just waiting for the next one.
3. The glorification of humans and the
belief that individuals are can do anything.
4.
The
belief that humans deserved to be the center of attention.
-
Humanism also had a subdivision known as civic humanism. The civic humanists believed that
participation in public affairs was essential for human development and that
individuals should not cut themselves off from society and study the world. Instead, they should help make changes in it
by becoming a part of government.
Eventually, the beliefs of the civic humanists spread to the humanists
as a whole.
Neoplatonism - Neoplatonism
sought to reconcile humanism with Christianity, to blend the teachings of Plato
and other ancient philosophers with the teachings of the Church. Neoplatonism flourished throughout Italy as the primary
philosophy by which artists rationalized their more secular works.
Papal Nephew - The term
'nephew' (nipote, in Italian) was applied to the
children, which though claimed as those of the pope's siblings, were understood
to be the pope's own illegitimate children. The fathering of illegitimate
children was common practice throughout the history of the Papacy, but during
the Renaissance, especially under corrupt popes such as Pope Sixtus IV, the position of the papal nephew rose to new
heights, as nephews were given influential positions and high salaries. This
practice of nepotism was one way in which the Church became morally discredited
during the Renaissance.
The Definition
of the Renaissance
The Renaissance (French Term) means the rebirth of culture.
However, it would be more accurately put as the rebirth of ancient culture
since the Middle Ages did have a form of culture, just not the same culture as
the ancients. An essential element of
the Renaissance was the beginning of humanism,
which glorified the culture of Ancient Greece and Rome.
Golden Age - The Golden
Age refers to the period from 1503, when Pope Julius II ascended to the papal
throne, to the sack of Rome in 1527, during which both the Papacy and the city
of Rome prospered greatly. Pope Julius II and his successor, Pope Leo X,
renewed faith in the morality of the Papacy and oversaw the most successful
period of the rebuilding of Rome, during which artists flocked to the city in
hope of a papal commission.
Sack of Rome - Because of
Pope Clement VII's inept negotiating, the angry
imperial army surrounded Rome on May 5, 1527 demanding that the Pope pay a
ransom. When he refused, and called the citizens of Rome to arms, the army
besieged the city. By one o'clock p.m. on May 6, the mercenary soldiers had
taken the city. The sack of Rome led to the subjugation of all of Italy to
Imperial-Spanish control, and the end of the Renaissance.
The Renaissance occurred mainly in
Italy between the years 1300-1600. New
learning and changes in styles of art were two of the most pronounces
characteristics of the Renaissance. This
secular movement emphasized the individual, not the group. Italian city-states, Venice, Milan, Padua,
Pisa, and Florence were the home to most Renaissance developments, which were
limited to the elite rich.
Humanists, as orators and poets, were
inspired by and imitate the works of the classical past. The literature was more secular and covered
more subjects than that of the Middle Ages. The area in which the humanists
really excelled was art. The differences
between Medieval art and Renaissance art are numerous, and very dramatic, for a
complete change in style occurred. Also,
during the Renaissance, great artists, for the first time, gained special
recognition and prestige instead of simply being craftsmen.
Characteristics
of Medieval Art
|
Characteristics
of Renaissance Art
|
- Paintings were lacking in depth and perspective. - Paintings usually lacked a background. - Always themed religiously and usually focusing on heaven or
holy people. - The paintings were not realistic, and made no sense
geometrically or mathematically. - The subjects did not show any emotions, except for calm or
piety. |
- Emulation of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. - Good use of depth in paintings. - Linear (further
away = smaller) and atmospheric (further away = hazier) perspective. - Paintings began to have more detailed backgrounds. - Not necessarily religious, more focus on earthly themes and
humans. - More realistic, geometrically precise and mathematically
accurate. - Subjects showing signs of more emotion. - Contraposto posture, in which the subject is
shifting his or her balance. |
The Renaissance is usually cut into three phases as follows:
The Early
Renaissance
The principal members of the first
generation of Renaissance artists--Donatello in
sculpture, Filippo Brunelleschi
in architecture, and Masaccio in painting--shared
many important characteristics. Central to their thinking was a faith in the
theoretical foundations of art and the conviction that development and progress
were not only possible but essential to the life and significance of the arts.
Ancient art was revered, not only as an inspiring model but also as a record of
trial and error that could reveal the successes of former great artists. Early Renaissance artists sought to create art
forms consistent with the appearance of the natural world and with their
experience of human personality and behavior.
Rational inquiry was believed to be the
key to success; therefore, efforts were made to discover the correct laws of
proportion for architecture and for the representation of the human body and to
systematize the rendering of pictorial space. These characteristics--the rendering of ideal
forms rather than literal appearance and the concept of the physical world as
the vehicle or imperfect embodiment of monumental spiritual beauty--were to
remain fundamental to the nature and development of Italian Renaissance art.
The term Early Renaissance
characterizes virtually all the art of the 15th century. Florence, the cradle
of Renaissance artistic thought, remained one of the undisputed centers of
innovation. By the late 15th century the
novelty of the first explosive advances of Renaissance style had given way to a
general acceptance of such basic notions as proportion, contraposto
(twisted pose), and linear perspective; consequently many artists sought means
of personal expression within this relatively well-established repertoire of
style and technique.
The High
Renaissance
The art of the High Renaissance sought
a general, unified effect of representation or architectural composition,
increasing the dramatic force and physical presence of a work of art and
gathering its energies and forming a controlled equilibrium. The High Renaissance style endured for only a
brief period (c.1495-1520) and was created by a few artists of genius, among
them Leonardo da Vinci, Donato
Bramante, Michelangelo, Raphael, and Titian. Leonardo da Vinci's
unfinished Adoration of the Magi (1481; Uffizi Gallery, Florence) is regarded
as a landmark of unified pictorial composition, later realized fully in his
fresco The Last Supper (1495-97; Santa Maria delle
Grazie, Milan). Leonardo is considered the paragon of Renaissance thinkers,
engaged as he was in experiments of all kinds and having brought to his art a
spirit of restless inquiry that sought to discover the laws governing diverse
natural phenomena.
The Late
Renaissance
The sack of Rome in 1527, which
temporarily ended the city's role as a source of patronage and compelled
artists to travel to other centers in Italy, France, and Spain. Even before the death of Raphael, in 1520,
anticlassical tendencies had begun to manifest themselves in Roman art. Mannerism was an aesthetic movement that
valued highly refined grace and elegance--the beautiful maniera,
or style, from which Mannerism takes its name. Although the fundamental
characteristics of Late Renaissance style were shared by many artists, this
period, dominated by Mannerism, was marked by artistic individuality--a quality
demonstrated to its fullest extent by the late works of Michelangelo. The
display of individual virtuosity became an important criterion of artistic
achievement, and rivalry often provoked competition based on brilliance of
individual performance.
1.
What were the values and purposes of
Renaissance education and how did they change over time?
2.
Compare and contrast the northern and the
southern renaissance and identify the characteristics, which distinguished them
from one other.
3.
What enterprises accounted most for the wealth
of the northern Italian communes at the beginning of the Renaissance?
4.
Explain Machiavelli’s ideal prince based on
his work The Prince.
5.
What were the views of Italian humainist Francesco Petrarch, and
how did he feel that his own times were “the dawn of a new era,” and an
improvement over the Dark Ages?
6.
Describe the
events leading up to Charles V’s sack of Rome and explain how this incident signaled the end of Italy’s reign as
the leading cultural center of the Renaissance
7.
Compare and contrast the views of Machiavelli
and Rousseau on human nature and the relationship between government and the
governed.
8.
Why was the Renaissance a turning point in the
development of Western civilization? Why was it a "rebirth"?
9.
How was the Renaissance in Italy different
from that in Northern Europe? How was it the same?
10.
How did
the Catholic Church loose the dominant position it had had during the medieval
period
in the Renaissance?
11.
The ideals, art and literature of Renaissance
and the Scientific Revolution affected many aspects that made up the period
known as the Enlightenment. Using the documents and your knowledge of European
history assess the validity of this statement.
H - humans deserved to be the center of attention.