Theory W  page 224                                   Scholar

 to the dissertation text.
 
          Author        References
          _____________ _____________
 
          Argyris       (4)(112)
          Barnard       (112)(115)
          Bennis        (4)(112)
          Drucker       (115)
          Dyer          (113)
          Fayol
          Freud
          Likert        (4)(112)
          Maslow        (112)(113)
          Mayo          (112)
          McGregor      (4)(112)(113)
          Obradovic 1978
          Roethisberger (4)(112)
          Shepard       (112)
          Uwick         (112)
          Whyte         (4)
          Zalesnik      (4)
       Then came investigation from a higher education
 administration point of view resulting in the following

 summary.

 Table 29 - Administrative theorists
 ____________________________________________________________

       Author         Year Association
       ______________ ____ ___________________
 
       Abbott         1957
       Am.Mgt.Assoc.  1953
       Archibald      1984 with McCorkle
       Argyris             in Getzels 1968
       Argyris             in Hersey 1969
       Argyris        1971
       Argyris        1974
       Argyris        1982
       Babbage             in Villers 1960
       Balderston     1974
       Balderston     1978
       Balderston     1978 with Curtis
                                                    continued
 ____________________________________________________________
 
 

 
 
 
 
 Table 29 continued                        Theory W  page 225
 ____________________________________________________________

       Barnard        1948
       Barnard             in Getzels 1968
       Barnard             in Balderston 1974
       Barnard        1938 in Balderston 1978
       Barzun              in Corson 1975
       Baumgartel     1967
       Beauchamp      1982
       Belisle        1955 with Sargent
       Bennis         1967 with Baumgartel
       Blake          1981
       Blanchard      1969 with Hersey
       Bobbitt        1913
       Bobbitt             in Callahan 1962
       Breneman       1971 in Balderston 1978
       Brief               in Argyris 1982
       Briggs         1920
       Brookover      1977 in Edmonds 1979
       Brooksbank     1980
       Callahan       1962
       Campbell       1968 with Getzels
       Carlson             in Halpin 1970
       Carter              in Argyris 1974
       CASEA          1964
       Chapman        1924 in Moehlman 1940
       Childress      1949 with Lawler
       Clapp          1940 in Sears 1950
       Cooper         1949 with Lawler
       Corson         1975
       Counts         1932 in Moehlman 1940
       Coursault      1920 in Moehlman 1940
       Croft               in Halpin 1970
       Cubberley      1915
       Cubberley      1920
       Cubberley      1923
       Culbertson          in CASEA 1962
       Curtis         1978
       Dahl           1961
       De             1967 with Baumgartel
       Dennison            in Urwick 1952
       Dickson        1939 with Roethlisberger
       Ecker          1978 with Curtis
       Edmonds        1978 in Edmonds 1979
       Edmonds        1979
       Eich           1985
       Eliot          1909
       Fayol          1937 in Sears 1950
                                                    continued
 ____________________________________________________________
 
 

 
 
 
 
 Table 29 continued                        Theory W  page 226
 ____________________________________________________________

       Fayol          1949
       Fayol               in Getzels 1968
       Fecher         1985
       Fredericksen        in Halpin 1970
       Follett             in Metcalf 1940
       Follett        1942
       Follett             in Getzels 1968
       Foote          1968
       Galbraith           in Pfeffer 1982
       Garzony        1981
       George         1983
       Getzels        1968
       Getzels             in Halpin 1970
       Griffiths      1956
       Griffiths      1959
       Griffiths           in CASEA 1962
       Griffiths           in Getzels 1968
       Griffiths           in Halpin 1970
       Guba                in Halpin 1970
       Gulick         1937
       Gulick         1948
       Gulick         1950
       Gulick              in Getzels 1968
       Halpin         1970
       Helsabeck      1973
       Hemphill            in Halpin 1970
       Hengst         1982 with Monahan
       Hersey         1969
       Herzberg            in Hersey 1969
       Hodfkinson     1971
       Homans              in Hersey 1969
       Hoy            1978
       Hunt           1958
       Jacobson       1968 in Eich 1985
       Johnson        1966 with Saunders
       Kast           1973 in Pfeffer 1974
       Kerman              in Eich 1985
       King                in Argyris 1974
       Kirsch         1978 with Sayers
       Knox           1973
       Lange
       Lawler         1949
       Lawrence       1967
       Lee            1983
       Lewin               in Getzels 1968
       Lezotle        1977 in Edmonds 1979
                                                    continued
 ____________________________________________________________
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Table 29 continued                        Theory W  page 227
 ____________________________________________________________

       Likert              in Hersey 1969
       Lipham         1968 with Getzels
       Lorsch         1967 with Lawrence
       Machiavelli         in Hodfkinson 1971
       Madden         1976 in Edmonds 1979
       March          1958
       Maslow              in Hersey 1969
       Maslow              in McGregor 1980
       Mauer          1971 in Pfeffer 1974
       Mayo           1933
       Mayo                in Getzels 1968
       Mayo                in Hersey 1969
       McCorkle       1984
       McGregor       1960
       McGregor            in Hersey 1969
       McGregor            in Townsend 1970
       McGregor            in Argyris 1971
       McGregor            in Hoy 1978
       McGregor       1980
       Metcalf        1940
       Miskel         1978 with Hoy
       Moehlman       1940
       Moehlman       1951
       Monahan        1982
       Mort           1941
       Mort           1957
       Morton         1981 with Blake
       Mortimer            in Hodfkinson 1971
       Nash           1984
       NYstate        1974 in Edmonds 1979
       Odiorne        1979
       Ouchi               in Lee 1983
       Ouchi               in George 1983
       Ouchi               in Lange
       Owen                in Urwick 1952
       Pfeffer        1982
       Phillips       1966 with Saunders
       Pierce         1958 with Hunt
       Powers,D       1983
       Powers,M       1983 with Powers,D
       Reeder         1941
       Richman        1974
       Riley          1978 with Curtis
       Roethlisberger 1939
       Roethlisberger      in Getzels 1968
       Rosenthal      1968 in Eich 1985
                                                    continued
 ____________________________________________________________
 
 
 
 
 

 
 Table 29 continued                        Theory W  page 228
 ____________________________________________________________

       Rosenzweig     1973 in Pfeffer 1974
       Sargent        1955
       Saunders       1966
       Sayers         1978
       Schon          1974 with Argyris
       Schukla             in Lee 1983
       Schwendiman    1983 with Lee
       Sears          1928
       Sears          1950
       Simon          1945
       Simon          1958 with March
       Simon               in Getzels 1968
       Simon          1976
       Simon          1947 in Balderston 1978
       Spaulding           in Callahan 1962
       Strayer        1914
       Tallett             in Urwick 1952
       Taylor         1934
       Taylor         1947
       Taylor              in Urwick 1952
       Taylor              in Villers 1960
       Taylor              in Callahan 1962
       Taylor              in Getzels 1968
       Taylor              in McGregor 1980
       Tope           1965
       Torbert             in Argyris 1982
       Townsend       1970
       Urwick         1940 with Metcalf
       Urwick         1945
       Urwick         1952
       Urwick         1964
       Villers        1960
       Weber          1962
       Weber               in Edmonds 1979
       Wengert        1942 in Sears 1950
       West           1985
       Williams       1981 with Blake
       Zander         1984
 ____________________________________________________________
 Note-   For chronological order see next table.
 Source- H.L.Otto (1985) Administrative theory. PhD course.
         Bowling Green OH: Bowling Green State University.
 
 Table 30 - Theorists chronology
 ____________________________________________________________
                                                    continued
 ____________________________________________________________
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Table 30 continued                        Theory W  page 229
 ____________________________________________________________
 
       Author         Year Association
       ______________ ____ ___________________
 
       Eliot          1909
       Bobbitt        1913
       Strayer        1914
       Cubberley      1915
       Briggs         1920
       Coursault      1920 in Moehlman 1940
       Cubberley      1920
       Cubberley      1923
       Chapman        1924 in Moehlman 1940
       Sears          1928
       Counts         1932 in Moehlman 1940
       Mayo           1933
       Taylor         1934
       Fayol          1937 in Sears 1950
       Gulick         1937
       Barnard        1938 in Balderston 1978
       Dickson        1939 with Roethlisberger
       Roethlisberger 1939
       Clapp          1940 in Sears 1950
       Metcalf        1940
       Moehlman       1940
       Urwick         1940 with Metcalf
       Mort           1941
       Reeder         1941
       Follett        1942
       Wengert        1942 in Sears 1950
       Simon          1945
       Urwick         1945
       Simon          1947 in Balderston 1978
       Taylor         1947
       Barnard        1948
       Gulick         1948
       Childress      1949 with Lawler
       Cooper         1949 with Lawler
       Fayol          1949
       Lawler         1949
       Gulick         1950
       Sears          1950
       Moehlman       1951
       Urwick         1952
       Am.Mgt.Assoc.  1953
       Belisle        1955 with Sargent
       Sargent        1955
                                                   continued
____________________________________________________________
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Table 30 continued                        Theory W  page 230
 ____________________________________________________________

       Griffiths      1956
       Abbott         1957
       Mort           1957
       Hunt           1958
       March          1958
       Pierce         1958 with Hunt
       Simon          1958 with March
       Griffiths      1959
       McGregor       1960
       Villers        1960
       Dahl           1961
       Callahan       1962
       Weber          1962
       CASEA          1964
       Urwick         1964
       Tope           1965
       Johnson        1966 with Saunders
       Phillips       1966 with Saunders
       Saunders       1966
       Baumgartel     1967
       Bennis         1967 with Baumgartel
       De             1967 with Baumgartel
       Lawrence       1967
       Lorsch         1967 with Lawrence
       Campbell       1968 with Getzels
       Foote          1968
       Getzels        1968
       Jacobson       1968 in Eich 1985
       Lipham         1968 with Getzels
       Rosenthal      1968 in Eich 1985
       Blanchard      1969 with Hersey
       Hersey         1969
       Halpin         1970
       Townsend       1970
       Argyris        1971
       Breneman       1971 in Balderston 1978
       Hodfkinson     1971
       Mauer          1971 in Pfeffer 1974
       Helsabeck      1973
       Kast           1973 in Pfeffer 1974
       Knox           1973
       Rosenzweig     1973 in Pfeffer 1974
       Argyris        1974
       Balderston     1974
       NYstate        1974 in Edmonds 1979
       Richman        1974
                                                    continued
 ____________________________________________________________
 
 

 
 
 
 
 Table 30 continued                        Theory W  page 231
 ____________________________________________________________

       Schon          1974 with Argyris
       Corson         1975
       Madden         1976 in Edmonds 1979
       Simon          1976
       Brookover      1977 in Edmonds 1979
       Lezotle        1977 in Edmonds 1979
       Balderston     1978
       Balderston     1978 with Curtis
       Curtis         1978
       Ecker          1978 with Curtis
       Edmonds        1978 in Edmonds 1979
       Hoy            1978
       Kirsch         1978 with Sayers
       Miskel         1978 with Hoy
       Riley          1978 with Curtis
       Sayers         1978
       Edmonds        1979
       Odiorne        1979
       Brooksbank     1980
       McGregor       1980
       Blake          1981
       Garzony        1981
       Morton         1981 with Blake
       Williams       1981 with Blake
       Argyris        1982
       Beauchamp      1982
       Hengst         1982 with Monahan
       Monahan        1982
       Pfeffer        1982
       George         1983
       Lee            1983
       Powers,D       1983
       Powers,M       1983 with Powers,D
       Schwendiman    1983 with Lee
       Archibald      1984 with McCorkle
       McCorkle       1984
       Nash           1984
       Zander         1984
       Eich           1985
       Fecher         1985
       West           1985
       Lange
       Ouchi               in Lange
       Follett             in Metcalf    1940
       Dennison            in Urwick     1952
       Owen                in Urwick     1952
                                                    continued
 ____________________________________________________________
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Table 30 continued                        Theory W  page 232
 ____________________________________________________________

       Tallett             in Urwick     1952
       Taylor              in Urwick     1952
       Babbage             in Villers    1960
       Taylor              in Villers    1960
       Bobbitt             in Callahan   1962
       Culbertson          in CASEA      1962
       Griffiths           in CASEA      1962
       Spaulding           in Callahan   1962
       Taylor              in Callahan   1962
       Argyris             in Getzels    1968
       Barnard             in Getzels    1968
       Fayol               in Getzels    1968
       Follett             in Getzels    1968
       Griffiths           in Getzels    1968
       Gulick              in Getzels    1968
       Lewin               in Getzels    1968
       Mayo                in Getzels    1968
       Roethlisberger      in Getzels    1968
       Simon               in Getzels    1968
       Taylor              in Getzels    1968
       Argyris             in Hersey     1969
       Herzberg            in Hersey     1969
       Homans              in Hersey     1969
       Likert              in Hersey     1969
       Maslow              in Hersey     1969
       Mayo                in Hersey     1969
       McGregor            in Hersey     1969
       Carlson             in Halpin     1970
       Croft               in Halpin     1970
       Fredericksen        in Halpin     1970
       Getzels             in Halpin     1970
       Griffiths           in Halpin     1970
       Guba                in Halpin     1970
       Hemphill            in Halpin     1970
       McGregor            in Townsend   1970
       Machiavelli         in Hodfkinson 1971
       McGregor            in Argyris    1971
       Mortimer            in Hodfkinson 1971
       Barnard             in Balderston 1974
       Carter              in Argyris    1974
       King                in Argyris    1974
       Barzun              in Corson     1975
       McGregor            in Hoy        1978
       Weber               in Edmonds    1979
       Maslow              in McGregor   1980
       Taylor              in McGregor   1980
                                                    continued
 ____________________________________________________________
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Table 30 continued                        Theory W  page 233
 ____________________________________________________________

       Brief               in Argyris    1982
       Galbraith           in Pfeffer    1982
       Torbert             in Argyris    1982
       Ouchi               in Lee        1983
       Ouchi               in George     1983
       Schukla             in Lee        1983
       Kerman              in Eich       1985
 ____________________________________________________________
 Note- For alphabetical order see previous table.
 Source- H.L.Otto (1985) Administrative theory. PhD course.
         Bowling Green OH: Bowling Green State University.
 Ideology structures
       Overview.
       Rationally, organizations must address the output
 actions of individual workers - charts and manuals always
 fall short.
       Marxism and bureaucracy need an inner structure theory
 of organization - functional organization if you will.
       Functionalism permits the assigned responsible worker
 to enact creativity and personal growth while linking to the
 follow-on task.  Comradery flourishes.  The formal structure
 must be "relegated" to a supportive role for the functional
 task workers and for the functional structure.  Workers are
 then focused on the authority of the preceding functional
 peer, and their authority for the following functional peer
 who gets their output.  Worker peers must reference in the
 input and output directions - beyond the scope of a stripped
 down formal organization chart.  Functionally structured
 worker relatedness then provides synergism.  Activities are
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 234                                   Scholar
 then coordinated on a most effective basis.
       Scientifism has difficulty promoting the dynamicism
 attributed to a functional organization.  Science is
 mandatory at the task level of work, but has very limited
 application in conjunction with the dynamics of the
 functional organization.
       Socialism, seemingly, must change the world.  Whereas
 functional organization has a why, a dynamic way, developing
 whats, and developing whos.  Social relations are needed in
 support of a pointed functional structure, which provides
 factual cohesion and minimizing uncertainty and ambiguity -
 specifically by publishing the facts of the functional
 organization structure to confront anti-dynamics.
       Normalism sets output limits and is therefore

 anti-dynamic and anti-synergistic.

       Marxism lacks a theory about the inner structure of
    organization, and about the relationship between this
    structure and the efficiency of organizations.  (1 91)
       John Gardner has gone so far as to suggest that the
    "dry rot" in organizations will become so bad that
    eventually they will collapse.  I share that view.  What
    I think will happen at both upper and lower levels is
    that rather than clean out the dry rot, organizations
    will cover it up with a new layer of controls or a new
    set of people.  Since everybody's dry rot is also
    included as part of the indirect cost, but there appears
    to be a limit to what the taxpayer will pay.  There may
    be a lesson here for industry.  (33 387)
 
       Rationalism.
 
       With Weber and Michels...both of these authors contain
    large measures of "immanent" explanations of the actions
    of organizations.  Also, the links backward to Weber and
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 235                                   Scholar

    Michels in present-day organization theory are often very
    evident.  (1 91)
       Max Weber represents rationalistic, instrumentalistic
    approach.  This is an approach in which the calculating
    and planning aspects of the actions of organizations are
    emphasized.  Robert Michels, on the other hand,
    exemplifies the systems perspective of organizations,
    according to which oligarchic phenomena emerge because of
    "automatic" processes of differentiation between the
    "elite" and the "mass".  Whereas Weber emphasizes
    prediction and plan, Michels emphasizes those aspects
    which are spontaneous and which arise "out of
    themselves."  (1 91)
       Regardless of the time and effort devoted by
    management to designing a rational organization chart and
    elaborate procedure manuals, this official plan can never
    completely determine the conduct and social relations of
    the organization's members.  (5 5)

       Functionalism.
       An example would be to let communication be humanly
 creative, like providing the workers with the phone numbers
 of their functionality authority right on the functional

 organization chart.

       Selznick has emphasized that the formal structure is
    only one aspect of the actual social structure and that
    organizational members interact as whole persons and not
    merely in terms of the formal roles they occupy.
    (256 25-35)
       Effective administration, according to Simen, requires
    rational decision-making; decisions are rational when
    they select the best alternative for reaching a goal.
    (5 36)
       Many empirical studies demonstrate that friendship
    patterns, unofficial exchange systems, and "natural"
    leaders arise to modify the formal arrangements.37
    (5 35)

       Orders from superiors made demands on the waitress, as
    did the "orders" of the customers, and even the requests
    for help from her coworkers.  A waitress was often caught
    in the cross currents of these demands, as when an
    impatient customer insisted on services that upset her
    routine.  The tensions produced by these conflicting
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 236                                   Scholar

    pressures sometimes built up to a point where they
    exploded, that is, made the waitress break down and cry.
    (260 83)
       It soon become apparent that there were uniformities
    in the behavior of the group under observation that did
    not follow the formal organization's blue-print.
    Informal relations developed among the men and gave rise
    to organized patterns of conduct in the group--that is,
    there was an informal organization.  (5 91)
       In the presence of a procedure manual, which serves as
    a substitute for personal experience and reduces
    differences in the objective need for advice between
    workers, the subjectively felt need for approval and
    support, as indicated by worrying, exerts more influence
    on the tendency to seek advice.  Here we see how an
    aspect of the formal institutions--the existence of a
    procedure manual--affects the informal relations that
    emerge among peers and, specifically, the significance
    that various characteristics of workers have for their
    informal status in the work group.  (5 235)
       Apparently, the importance of peers as a reference
    group tended to increase over time for those workers who
    had achieved an integrated position but to decrease over
    time for those who had failed to attain a secure
    characteristic of the emergence in work groups of
    informal organizations, which exert a pronounced effect
    on the operations in the formal organization.  (5 237)
       The emphasis of the formal organization is on the
    positions in the organization, whereas the emphasis of
    the informal organization is on people and their
    relationships.  (12 204)
       Another approach to charting the informal organization
    is to diagram the pattern of informal interactions on the
    formal organization chart itself.  (12 210)
       The conception of structure or system implies that the
    component units stand in some relation to one another
    and, as the popular expression "The whole is greater than
    the sum of its parts" suggests, that the relations
    between units add new elements to the situation.
    (262 519-27)
       If the accomplishment of an objective requires
    collective effort, men set up an organization designed to

 ____________________
 
       37 See, for example, C.H.Page (1946) "Bureaucracy's
 other face," Social Forces, 25, pp.88-94 & R.H.Turner (1947)
 "The Navy disbursing officer as a bureaucrat," American
 Sociological Review, 12, pp.342-348.
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 237                                   Scholar

    coordinate the activities of many persons and to furnish
    incentives for others to join them for this purpose.
    Since the distinctive characteristic of these
    organizations is that they have been formally established
    for the explicit purpose of achieving certain goals, the
    term "formal organizations" is used to designate them.
    (5 5)

       Scientifism.
 
       Herbert Simon conceives of administrative
    organizations primarily as decision-making structures.
    (257 1-11,45-78) He has characterized his own focus in
    the following passage:
       What is scientifically relevant description of an
    organization?  It is a description that, so far as
    possible, designates for each person in the organization
    what decisions that person makes, and the influence to
    which he is subject in making each of these decisions.
    (257 37)
       The object of all science is to explain things.  What
    do we mean by a scientific explanation?  An observed fact
    is explained by reference to a general principle, that
    is, by showing that the occurrence of this fact under the
    given circumstances can be predicted from thee principle.
    To first establish such an explanatory principle or
    theoretical generalization, many particular events must
    be observed and classified into general categories that
    make them comparable.  To explain a principle requires a
    more general proposition from which this and other
    similarly specific principles can be inferred.  (5 10)

       Socialism.
 
       Talcott Parsons provides yet another conception of
    formal organization in the recent application of his
    general theoretical framework for the study of social
    systems to such organizations.  (258 16-96) According to
    Parsons' schema, all social systems must solve four basic
    problems:  (1) the environment coupled with the active
    transformation of the external situation; (2) goal
    achievement:  the defining of objectives and the
    mobilization of resources to attain them; (3)
    integration:  establishing and organizing a set of
    relations among the member units of the system that serve
    to coordinate and unify them into a single entity; and
    (4) latency:  the maintenance over time of the system's
    motivational and cultural patterns.  (259 183-6)
       As the Hawthorne studies continued, an increasing
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 238                                   Scholar

    awareness of the significance of social relations for
    worker morale led the investigators to decide to observe
    the behavior of a group functioning under normal
    circumstances rather than attempt to manipulate work
    conditions experimentally.  (5 91)
       The cohesion of work groups often furthers operations.
    For example, cohesion has been shown to raise worker
    satisfaction and to lower turnover and absenteeism.
    Cohesion also provides social support for workers; thus,
    it can neutralize the disturbing effects of conflicts
    with client...(5 95)
       Both Jaques (253 85-106) and Dalton (254 243-8,252-5)
    have noted that an individual's ability to stand
    uncertainty and ambiguity governs the scope of the
    responsibility he will seek.
       Both Jaques and Dalton tend to view this
    characteristic--the individual's capacity to stand
    ambiguity--in psychological or sociopsychological terms
    whereas we would prefer to concentrate attention on the
    individual's position in the social structure as it
    influences his ability to cope with prolonged
    uncertainty.  (5 241)
       It has been found that attempting to eliminate or
    track down informal communication channels does little to
    dispel erroneous beliefs in the organization, but it may
    actually aggravate them.  On the other hand, prompt
    publication of relevant facts is the most effective
    method of refuting invalid rumors.  (12 206)
       I've seen it over and over again.  New developments
    for rational decision making often produce intense
    resentment in men who ordinarily view themselves as
    realistic, flexible, definitely rational.  Managers and
    executives who place a premium on rationality, and work
    hard to subdue emotionality, become resistant and
    combative in the back-alley ways of bureaucratic politics
    when such new technologies are introduced.  (33 382)
       Existing organizations generally require executives
    who enjoy ambiguity, manipulating others, and making
    propensities which only they con fulfill.  The latter
    skill is particularly important.  One mark of a
    successful executive is that he can marshall human and
    financial resources to make his decisions come true even
    if others feel that the goals could not--or should
    not--be achieved.  (33 390)
       Social relations involve, first, patterns of social
    interaction:  the frequency and duration of the contacts
    between people, the tendency to initiate these contacts,
    the direction of influence between persons, the degree of
    cooperation, and so forth.  Second, social relations
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 239                                   Scholar

    entail people's sentiments to one another, such as
    feelings of attraction, respect, and hostility.  The
    differential distribution of social relations in a group,
    finally, defines its status structure.  Each member's
    status in the group depends on his relations with the
    others--their sentiments toward and interaction with him.
    As a result, integrated members become differentiated
    from isolates, those who are widely respected from those
    who are not highly regarded, and leaders from followers.
    (5 3)
       Treating groups rather than individuals as independent
    units of analysis permits making generalizations about
    the internal structure of work groups, but it ignores the
    interrelations of these groups in the larger industrial
    organization.  (5 12)

       Normalism.
 
       Norms controlling worker output also served the
    function of increasing job security for workers.  (5 93)
       Babchuk and Goode report a situation where a sales
    group developed a quota system that equalized sales
    volume for each member although management had
    established a commission arrangement encouraging
    competition among salesmen.  (252 679-87)
       A study by Roy of a group of workers in a machine shop
    also deals with regulation of output.  (262 427-42)
       It appears that the relationship between informal
    status and performance is contingent on work group norms:
    only if the expert exercise of skills is a dominant value
    in the group does high status tend to be associated with
    superior performance and to serve as an incentive
    promoting it; if the dominant norm standardizes
    productivity, high stature is associated with modal
    performance.
       And in groups organized in outright opposition to the
    formal organization, such as are found in prisons or
    concentration camps, high informal status probably
    accrues to those members who can most effectively resist
    organization pressures; that is, to the "low producers:
    from the standpoint of the formal organization.  (5 95)
       Unfortunately, our studies so far indicate that the
    majority of managers still do not know how to use models
    as the basis for creative experiments.  This is partly
    due to the fact that experimentation, risk taking, and
    trust have been drummed out of our managerial systems.
    This assures that just those men who do not enjoy
    experimenting will become managers.  Those few brave
    souls who prefer to experiment will be faced with an
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 240                                   Scholar

    array of control systems that are still based on the
    principle of management by exception.  Their behavior
    will come under audit the moment it deviates from
    expected norms.  (33 391)
 Ponderousness
       Although this dissertation surveys much history,
 Theory W attempts to avoid a lot of original historical
 words.  Theory W words, in turn, are intended to be a
 different set of mortar which uses the quoted bricks of the
 past.  By seeing the new-mortar opportunity Theory W intends
 to avoid "the ponderousness of Barnard's style [as] the
 mark, perhaps, of the amateur scholar."(4 xiii) Organization
 remains a large arena with great opportunity to succumb to
 the others' opinion of the truth of functionality.
       Schools of thought. Names and their associated
 institutions begin to appear in the dissertation's
 consciousness.  The first school coming to mind is the
 Columbia, Boston, Harvard, and Toronto University group of
 Davis, Lawrence, Kolodny, and Beer (130).  Assuming that all
 schools pay homage to tradition, organization schools seem
 to begin with the church and military organizational
 conception.  Although dissertation thought development links
 to that formal organization, and the succeeding forms of
 informal, functional, and matrix; Theory W really begins
 with the child's organizational question which usually
 appears by three years of age - "Why?"  More on the
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 241                                   Scholar
 application of administration of learning principles later
 in this dissertation.
       The previous chapter presented the parentage of Theory
 W - picking and choosing from the literature.  This chapter
 provides more detail into the characteristics of Theory W
 parentage - above from the educational administrative view
 and below from the business administrative and psychology

 views.
 
 Table 31 - Early modern administrative literature
 ___________________________________________________________
 
 Year  Name      Comment                   Reference
 _____ _________ _________________________ _______________
 
 1923  Fayol     France                    (183)
 1928  Lee       England                   (184)
 1930s Barnard                             (4)(40)
 1932  Follett   England and U.S.          (185)
       Dennison  U.S. manufacturing        (186)
                 and the Post Office
 1933  Urwick    U.S. consultant           (112)(188)(189)
       Graicunas French consultant         (187)
 1935  Henderson                           (190)
       Whitehead                           (190)
       Mayo      Harvard University        (190)
 1936  Gulick    Columbia University       (191)
                 and public administration
 ___________________________________________________________
 Note: Above parenthetic references.
 
 Organization development
       More specifically called organization development

 field theory.
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 242                                   Scholar

 Table 32 - Strategies of deliberate changing
 ____________________________________________________________
 
   Rational-Empirical
     Views of the enlightenment and classical liberalism...
   Normative - Views of therapists...
   Re-educative - Trainers, and situation changers
     Urick - Organization structure
     E.Mayo - Industrial sociology
      Roethisberger (also fed Counseling)
       Barnard (also connection from Urick)
        Maslow connection from the Normative
        D.McGregor
        R.Likert
        W.Bennis
        H.Shepard
        C.Argyris
   Power-Coercive
     Use of political institutions...
 ____________________________________________________________
 Note:  Taken from reference (112 82-3).
 
 Table 33 - Nine inventions
 ____________________________________________________________
 
   Organization pictorial            References
   ________________________________ ___________
 
   An 8x9x6 cube of interventions   (112 25)
   A formal and informal iceberg    (112 28)
   Organization strategies          (112 82-3)
      Authors shown in previous tables
   The six-box organizational model (112 141-2)
   Change in operating efficiency   (112 228)
      Effect of opportunity on work quality and productivity
   Motivating potential score       (112 305)
   Core job dimensions              (112 311)
   Types of organization            (112 346)
   Research variables - table below (112 526-7) also (92)
 ____________________________________________________________
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 243                                   Scholar
 
 Table 34 - OD variables
 ____________________________________________________________
 
 Process variables
  Group
   Task oriented
    Work facilitation
     by defining work tasks.
    Goal emphasis
     by linking tasks with measurable objectives and mission.
   People oriented
    Interaction and communication
     by defining the work actions and their interdependency.
    Involvement and motivation
     by visually displaying work, objectives, & mission ties.
  Organization
   People oriented
    Human resources primacy
     by showing individuals their tasks in the organization.
    Norms
     by focusing on the tasks of organization accomplishment.
   Task oriented
    Participation
     by defining each individual's part
    Goal setting consensusa
    Control
     by providing task norms for reconciliation with actual.
    Decision making
     by framing the comparison of alternates
    Integration
     by linking all organization tasks to mission.
   Macro
    Systems of management
     by defining a way to document task dynamics.
    Structure and functioning
     by modeling the organization's functional structure.
  Individual
   Psychological
    Self-actualization (growth)
     by documenting the units of accomplishment.
   Behavioral
    Awareness and understanding
     by documenting organization work which supports its aim.
   Interpersonal
    Relationships
     by emphasizing who supports us and who we support.
  Leader
   Subordinate
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 244                                   Scholar

    Relationships
     by showing the way to aims through togetherness.
   Characteristics
    Value
     by showing the way to individual and organization actual.
   Task oriented
    Work facilitation
     by showing why the work is needed for motivation reward.
    Problem solving
     by providing a total organization task structure.
    Goal emphasis
     by relating individual goals to the total organization.
    Facilitation of....
 ____________________________________________________________
 Note: Chosen from 48 process and 21 outcome variables (92).
       a  Not a matter of group evolvement but a designer
 function which Theory W facilitates.  OD refinement tasks
 are encouraged but on a cost/benefit basis - see four sided
 organization Theory Which permits Theory W to be
 differentiated from the formal, informal, and technical
 aspects/fields.

       Dissertation key words.
       An attempt was made to follow what was thought to be a
 pattern of scholastic agreement, yet no such pattern
 emerged.  There exists a rather scattered array of ideas not
 necessarily linked to previous thought nor reflective of
 practical application.  The following schema was quickly

 abandoned.
 
       case study approach (115)
       economies of scope (115)
       functional organization - organization (114)
       organization change - organization charter (114)
       organization - functional organization theory (115)
       rationality - strategy - synergy (115)
       Delimited key words. Key words which have been placed
 outside the rigorous Theory W boundaries.  The
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 245                                   Scholar
 outside-the-Theory-W-boundary key words appear in the
 dissertation as a delimiting exercise.  Again, as stated

 above, the following schema was quickly abandoned.
 
       adaptation of organization (115)
       formal organization functionalists (114)
       informal organization job enrichment (114)
       open systems (114)
       organization health (113)
       reorganization (114)
 Organization philosophy
       The unfolding of this praxis has brought the
 inspection process back to Fayol.  Thus Fayol can be seen as
 the base of Theory W.
       Philosophy of administration. Becoming a philosopher
 of administration can be seen as taking up where past
 philosophers of functional organization left off.  The
 investigative process thus becomes - first identify the
 philosophers, second identify a dissertation topic within
 the discipline where the an advance can be made.

       Philosopher Fayol. No one else is thus described.

       As a philosopher of administration [Fayol]...left a
    mark on the thinking of his own [France] and many other
    European countries, not less than the mark left by Taylor
    in the US.  (164 ix)
       Fayol's general management book (164) was published in
 Great Britain in 1929 (164 v).  The universal need for
 administration was filled by the scientific mind
 independently.
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 246                                   Scholar

       Education vs business.

       The word management in the English-speaking countries
    is itself used very loosely and with a variety of
    meanings.  The Concise Oxford Dictionary still carries
    the quaint definition - n.in verbal senses; also or
    especially; trickery, deceitful contrivance; the
    management, governing body, board of directors, etc.  The
    close association of these ideas is unlikely to enhance
    the dignity either of the subject or of those who
    practice the activity.  (164 xiii)
       And education thusly maintains distance from business.
 Yet education does very well in promoting the above verbal
 connotation as a function of regular daily meeting, even
 hourly, checking on others work.  In opposition, if not
 checked, the worker can be seen as managing themselves.  To
 the contrary, the philosophy of administration has long made
 a basic assumption about workers.

       Worker stature.

       Human beings are incapable of any objective discussion
    of the correct distribution of functions, if, owing to
    the terms used, the problem becomes confused in their
    minds with their status as individuals, that is to say
    with their personal dignity, prospects of advancement,
    and desire for emoluments.  (164 xiii)
       Fayol revisited. Fayol had a different basis for

 administration.

       Fayol employs the word administration with one meaning
    and one meaning only.  He uses it to describe a function,
    a kind of activity.  And he is quite indifferent whether
    those exercising this kind of activity are described as
    Managing Directors or as Change-hands.  He is concerned
    with the function, not with the status of those who
    exercise it.  To be sure, those holding positions high up
    in the hierarchy will devote a larger portion of their
    time to this function and a smaller portion to other
    functions and vice versa.  But he is quite clear that
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 247                                   Scholar

    some element of administration, as he uses the word,
    enters into all tasks involving supervision of the work
    of others.  (164 xiv)
       Perhaps today, in the age of psychology and
 organization behavior, would easily expand his definition of
 administration to include the supervision of the work of
 self.

       Universality?
 
       Fayol said in his address to the Second International
    Congress of Administrative Science - The meaning which I
    have given to the word administration and which has been
    generally adopted, broadens considerably the field of
    administrative science.  It embraces not only the public
    service but enterprises of every size and description, of
    every form and every purpose.  All undertakings require
    planning, organization, command, co-ordination and
    control, and in order to function properly, all must
    observe the same general principles.  We are no longer
    confronted with several administrative sciences, but with
    one which can be applied equally well to public and to
    private affairs.  (1937 "The Administrative Theory in the
    State" in Papers in the Science of Administration edited
    by L.Gulick and L.Urwick, Columbia University Press.)
       Fayol devoted much of his effort in his concluding
    years of his life to demonstrating this unity of
    administrative theory.  In this he was at one with the
    most distinguished exponents of scientific management in
    the United States - Taylor himself, Follett and others.
    (164 xv)
       It is to be hoped that the translation of
    administration in Fayol's title by management will not
    lead those engaged in central and local government in the
    English-speaking countries, to imagine that the lessons
    he has to teach are only for those engaged in the conduct
    of business undertakings.  If so they will misread the
    lesson which was at the heart of his philosophy and the
    secret of his phenomenal success as a practical
    administrator.  (164 xvi-xvii)
       To the contrary, some education, including many
 "higher" educators, simply impose tradition - slave labor,
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 248                                   Scholar

 hoop jumping, etc.- unto "students" of administration.

 Faculty function38
       Allan Tucker's book, "Chairing The Academic
 Department," dated 1984, (275 chapter 15) comes near to the
 subject of functional organization.  The chapter title is -
 Assigning and reporting faculty activities.
       Bare (1980) in turn references Bare (1978) for
 measuring the chairperson's performance in eliciting faculty
 performance.  The chair functions are:  (1) counseling and
 team building, (2) coordination and control, (3) staffing,
 (4) formalizing, (5) training, (6) external representation,
 (7) communication and feedback, and (8) performance-reward
 management (270 19).  Then later in the book a different

 version is presented.
 
       1.Formalizing,
       2.External representation,
       3.Training,
       4.Reward administration,
       5.Staffing,
       6.Counseling,
       7.Conflict resolution,
       8.Power equalization,
       9.Goal clarification and feedback,
      10.Coordination
      11.Role clarification, and
      12.Problem solving. (270 109)
       Faculty are professionals thus consider the counseling

 ____________________
 
       38 Based on H.L.Otto (Dec1985) Dissertation
 thoughts.  For BGSU advisor York and courses EDFI 797 by
 Pigge and EDAS 682 by Carlson.  Bowling Green OH: State
 University.
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 249                                   Scholar
 need to be exceptional, and therefore the team building
 aspect of the explicit Theory W functional organization can
 be of use.  Faculty control their performance thus the
 coordination from the chair function comes to prominence.
 Staffing, in the sense of directly hiring or firing
 organization members, does not fall within the purview of
 Theory W.  To aid in teaming aspect and coordination of
 staff as the organization members, Theory W formalizes a
 functional organization structure.  This does not interfere
 with the formal organization structure.  The job description
 version of the Theory W functional organization structure
 can be used as a vital and very practical proven training
 tool.  Its external representation can be seen in the in
 toto Theory W data base, and in the vividness of the
 member's job tasks - designed for communication and
 feedback.  The communication and feedback being enhanced by
 the Theory W weekly feedback review by formal boss and
 member.  The overall performance measure of Theory W can be
 seen as member job satisfaction.

 Education and the economy39

       The wealth of a country is based upon its power to
    develop and to effectively utilize the innate
    capabilities of its people.  The economic development of

 ____________________
 
       39 Based on H.L.Otto (Spr1986) Education principles.
 For BGSU course EDAS 724 by York.  Bowling Green OH: State
 University.
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 250                                   Scholar

    nations, therefore, is ultimately the result of human
    effort.  It takes skilled human agents...  Alfred
    Marshall argued that the most valuable of all capital is
    that invested in human beings.  And a growing number of
    today's economists subscribe to a theory - of which
    T.W.Schultz is a leading exponent - that human resources
    are a form of capital, a produced means of production,
    and the product of investment.  (253 ix)
       The essays in this volume...serve as reminders that
    many problems of human resource development (HRD) are
    unique to every country that experiences them.
    HRD...includes formal education at all levels....it
    covers on-the-job training, individual self-development.
    and informal as well as formal adult education.  (253 x)
       It is possible to quantify many of the human resource
    variables with as much precision as many other economic
    variables.  (253 xii)
       In the United States...the annual costs of elementary,
    high school, and higher education exceeds $30 billion.
    (281 5)
       To speak of schooling as an investment is to imply
    that it is something material.  (281 viii)
       It will be necessary to develop an all-inclusive
    concept of the factors of production including the
    economic productivity of education.  (281 xi)
       This essay rests on the proposition that people
    enhance their capabilities as producers and as consumers
    by investing in themselves and that schooling is the
    largest investment in human capital.  (281 x)
       The fact that there are some attributes of education
    that can be treated by economics does not mean that they
    are necessarily important.  Nor does it imply that those
    which economic theory puts aside are unimportant.
    (281 1-2)
       Schooling is...a concept applied to the educational
    services rendered by elementary and secondary schools and
    by institutions for higher learning, including the effort
    of students to learn.  Organized education, however, is
    not only engaged in producing schooling but also in
    advancing knowledge through research, and for its own
    sake going beyond teaching or instruction that enters
    currently into schooling.  (281 3)
       I propose to treat education as a...set of activities,
    of which some are organized, as they are in schools, and
    some are unorganized...  In the home, in the church, and
    in the armed services, education in the firms consisting
    of on-the-job learning, and education in the schools
    consisting mainly of elementary and secondary schools and
    institutions of higher education.  (281 4)
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 251                                   Scholar

       When earnings foregone are included in the estimates
    of costs, estimates of the rate of return are cut by
    about 60 percent.  Even so, the rate of return may be as
    high or appreciably higher then that on investment
    generally...  (281 5-6)
       While it is obvious that costs are a basic component
    in studying the economics of education, it is surprising
    how little has been done to develop appropriate concepts
    for this purpose and to identify and measure these costs.
    (281 6)
       In addition to tuition and other explicit outlays and
    the not so explicit earnings foregone, the taxes, mainly
    local school taxes, paid by the family where children
    attend a public school, or gifts by the family to finance
    a parochial school where children attend it, and the
    profits foregone in case they own stocks in corporations
    that make grants to the school which the children attend.
    The smaller part of these costs is borne by persons other
    than the student or his family through taxes and grants
    made directly to the school, or indirectly through
    corporations in which they have stocks, and through
    grants made to schools by private foundations.  (281 21)
       Schooling is more dependent upon the human factor than
    is production in the rest of the economy.  In 1956 about
    89% of the costs incurred for elementary and secondary
    schooling and for higher education are attributed to
    labor.  When earnings foregone by students are added,
    about 93% of the 1956 factor costs of education are
    traced back to wages and salaries for human effort.
    (281 34-35)
       In 1956 teachers represented 2.3% of the employed
    labor force in the United States.  (281 41)
       The economic capabilities of man are predominantly a
    produced means of production) and that...most of the
    differences in earnings are a consequence of differences
    in the amounts that have been invested in people.  The
    implication of this assumption is that the structure of
    wages and salaries, which have long baffled economists,
    is determined in the long run by investment in schooling,
    health, on-the-job training, and in searching for
    information about job opportunities, and in acting on it.
    (281 64-65)
 
 Productivity in higher ed
 
       Efficiency in higher ed.
 
       Efficiency is measured as a ratio between two
    variables, cost and output.  The best of all possible
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 252                                   Scholar

    worlds exists when it is possible to cut cost and raise
    quality at the same time.  (277 3)
       How might instruction be organized in a liberal arts
    college to reduce cost while maintaining or even
    improving quality?  The instructional systems considered
    were modification of the conventional plan by introducing
    a few lecture courses of large enrollment (a variant of
    the Ruml plan), programmed independent study of a type
    that would require minimal time of the instructor and
    minimal specialized equipment other than library books,
    tutorial instruction (the Bakan plan), programmed
    independent study using mechanical aids (the Kieffer
    plan), and a plan of our own (the eclectic plan)
    combining these several methods.  (281 95)
       The hypothetical college we used for our computations
    is roughly comparable in size and characteristics to
    Grinnell College or Pomona College...1,200 students and
    100 faculty members.  The average teaching load is 2
    courses per semester for science teachers and 2.5 courses
    for all others.  Teachers devote on the average 30 hours
    a week during the academic year to instruction in all its
    aspects.  Courses carry four credits, and the typical
    student load is four courses per semester.  The average
    class size is 20 students.  Faculty compensation averages
    $14,000 including fringes with an additional allowance
    for the cost of sabbaticals, sick leave, etc.  Physical
    plant costs are calculated as a rental on required space
    with realistic assumptions about space utilization.
    Substantial sums are allocated to the library and
    computer facilities.  The curriculum is considerably less
    proliferated than that actually found in most colleges of
    the type we surveyed.  (281 96-97)
       We believe there is ample opportunity within
    prevailing economic constraints for bold educational
    experimentation.  We also believe that faculty
    discussions of educational policy should be more attuned
    to budgetary considerations than have been traditionally.
    The curriculum, the mode of instruction, and the teaching
    load do make a difference in costs.  They may not spell
    the difference between institutional solvency and
    bankruptcy, but they may differentiate between
    institutional progress and stagnation.  (281 102-103)
       Overall, the private sector spends more per student
    (full-time equivalent) than the public sector for
    1971-72:  Total educational and general expenditures,
    $3532 vs 2435; Expenditures for instruction and
    departmental research, $1383 vs 1128.  (278 92) The data
    on revenues and expenditures are derived primarily from
    annual reports of each institution to the Higher
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 253                                   Scholar

    Education General Information Survey (HEGIS) of the
    U.S.Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, p.45.
 
       Parsons College.
 
       One of the earliest and most persistent criticisms of
    both Roberts and the college was that they, to put it
    charitably, lacked candor.  (282 131)
       The credibility gap was fed not so much by outright
    lies as by evasions, half-truths, unsubstantiated claims,
    and by unorthodox methods of gathering and reporting data
    or a disinclination to do so at all.  (282 132)
       The Life article was not as bad as Parsons,
    understandability enough, thought it was, and would have
    been less damaging if the college would have said
    nothing.  It was written in the idiom of tongue-in-cheek
    popular journalism, the object being to amuse rather than
    enlighten.  In view of the number of other reporters who
    had been conned by Parsons in previous years, perhaps the
    conning of Parsons by Life was merely just retribution.
    Victims, in a way, of their own overblown publicity.
    (282 167-8)
 
      Profit.
 
       The main elements of the Parsons Plan as Roberts and
    his consultants developed them over the years were:  (1)
    year-round operation, (2) an open-door admissions policy
    with intensive recruitment, (3) sharply restricted
    curriculum with large classes, (4) high teaching loads
    and high salaries, (5) high tuition and fees, and (6)
    cheap buildings with the fullest possible use of them.
    (282 24-25)
       The three-year college is not a new proposal.  It
    flourished a half century ago at Harvard.  (282 27)
       The average faculty salary when Roberts arrived at
    Parsons was about $3600.  When he departed it was about
    $12,000 if one counts all teaching members...(282 34)
       The college ran studies on how many students appeared
    before each professor and how much tuition income each
    professor was therefore producing for the college.
    (282 37)
       Parsons accurately assessed its market and pegged its
    fees accordingly.  It did not charge all the market would
    bear and was not exorbitant in its fees, but Parsons was
    on the high side of the national scale and higher than
    other colleges with which it might be thought to compete.
    (282 39)
       The problem of buildings gave Roberts and the Parsons
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 254                                   Scholar

    Plan the greatest trouble.  It is one thing to run a
    college out of tuition and fees - to pay, that is,
    current operating expenses out of operating income - but
    a far different thing to finance) a college out of this
    income; to buy equipment and put up buildings as well as
    to meet the daily operating costs.  But Roberts was out
    to prove that total financing out of fees was possible.
    That was his whole pitch:  the need for colleges to move
    away from dependence on endowment and gifts...(282 40-41)
       The college had over $3 million in 1966 and over $2.5
    million in 1967 that was "excess income."  Between 1961
    and 1967, the college generated about $9
    million...(282 43)
       Raymond Gibson claims, on the basis of his experience
    as provost of the college, that $1 million could have
    been saved every year, with no curtailment of services,
    simply by lopping off the extravagant expenditures of the
    central administration and the athletic department:  and
    adds that another $750,000 could have been saved by
    signing up faculty members on a year-round teaching
    schedule rather than giving them one-third of each year
    off with pay.  (282 46)
       By the time Roberts left, there was a president, a
    provost, four vice presidents, four deans, and an
    assortment of minor administrators.  (282 47)
 
       Students.
 
       The typical problem of an American student headed for
    college is whether he will make it to the college of his
    choice, the problem for his counterpart in the rest of
    the world is whether he will make it to college at all.
    Nor does any other nation have anything like the dual
    system of private and public institutions that we do,
    wherein most institutions engage in the vigorous
    "recruitment" of students.  We have moved steadily away
    from a dual system of public and private institutions
    toward one in which the tax-supported institutions are
    dominant.  (282 55)
 
       Curtailed curriculum.
 
       Roberts expanded and inflated the courses offered in
    his early years until the church and other people began
    to question the size of the Parsons curriculum.  But
    after the Ruml Report, change came fast.  (282 82)
 
       Quality.
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 255                                   Scholar
 
       The board's record differs only in degree, not in
    kind, from any other boards of trustees naturally
    composed, as they all are, of devoted, well-meaning, very
    busy people who have many demands on their time.
    (282 48)
       The student-teacher ratio, a favorite but misleading
    measure used by accreditors and other people to judge the
    quality of an institution, would be...near the national
    average if all three classes of teachers were included.
    The most recent figure available for the national average
    is slightly over 18-1.  The number of Ph.D.'s on the
    Parsons staff in relation to the number of students
    enrolled was about the same before Robert's
    administration as during it.  The difference, of course,
    was that they taught many more students under Roberts.
    The Ph.D.'s did almost all of the lecturing in almost all
    of the classes....  It is surely clear that the ratio of
    Ph.D.'s to non-Ph.D.'s has an important bearing on the
    overall quality of an institution.  (282 94-95)
       For the students who entered Parsons as freshmen
    between 1955 and 1962, the attrition rate - the
    percentage who failed to graduate - fluctuated between a
    low of 55% and a high of 80%.  In other words, the
    college graduated 45% of those it had taken in as
    freshmen and in in worst year only 20%.  (282 101)
       The Parsons rate of, say, 60-70 % would compare well
    enough with the attrition rates of many tax-supported
    institutions, particularly some of the large state
    universities, but obviously not with the good private
    colleges.  (282 102)
       The ranked faculty carried a teaching load of 12 to 15
    hours, which meant 4 or 5 courses that met 3 times a
    week....  The load was made heavier by the size of the
    classes, by the fact that every class was wholly given
    over to a fairly formal lecture, and by the emphasis that
    was put on good teaching.  (282 106)
       At Parsons, perhaps because of the rigid curriculum
    and instructional program, and perhaps because many of
    the students may have been more comfortable with facts
    than with ideas, both the teaching and the learning,
    especially in the core curriculum (where most of the
    students were to be found), tended to be textbook-based
    with an emphasis on mastery of information.  Those who
    would criticize Parsons for that kind of education must
    be prepared to give the same treatment to a great many
    other institutions.  (282 110)
       One insider was appointed acting president to succeed
    Roberts but soon returned to his old faculty position,
    whereupon another insider was appointed acting president,
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 256                                   Scholar

    but he too left the job.  Finally another insider was
    made full president, thus giving Parsons the experience
    of four presidents in two years...(282 221)
       Having completed five complete self-evaluations in
    about 11 years (and having been through six complete
    assessments by the NCA - North Central Association of
    Colleges and Secondary Schools) is surely one of the most
    introspective colleges in the country; whatever virtues
    inherent in NCA self-studies Parsons must have in great
    abundance, though mixed perhaps with some neuroticism
    from such prolonged contemplation of self.  Since
    Roberts' departure, Parsons has striven to refine the
    most promising elements of the Parsons Plan and to
    jettison the rest.  One of the first changes was to
    greatly strengthen the authority of the faculty.
    (282 223)
 
       Ruml models.
 
       It is liberal education that discovers, defines and
    preserves the essential human values...(283 1)
       The charter is the constitution for the government of
    the college or university.  It is from this point we best
    survey performance and appraise results in terms of
    purpose.  (283 3)
       The members of the faculty as individuals must be
    distinguished from the faculty as a body.  In the faculty
    as a body, an institutional framework and power is
    brought into being that serves badly the chief purpose
    assigned to it, namely, the design and administration of
    a liberal curriculum.  (283 5-6)
 
       Efficiency.
 
       There are three rough indicators by which the
    Trustees, the administration, the faculty and friends of
    the college can get a working idea of its overall
    efficiency.  A higher level of efficiency means better
    faculty compensation and all that goes with it; it also
    gives the potential for a teaching program that will turn
    out better graduates...(1) ratio of students to faculty,
    (2) average number of hours per week that members of the
    faculty are engaged in lecturing, classroom or laboratory
    instruction, (3) relation of aggregate faculty
    compensation to tuition income.  (283 10)
       The academic calendar has two phases:  (1) the
    organization of the academic week and (2) the
    organization of the academic year.  The academic week,
    the prevailing practice in organizing the academic week
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 257                                   Scholar

    is to provide for 5 courses of 3 hours a week each, or 15
    hours a week in the classroom for each student.
    Modifications are made for laboratory and field work, and
    special arrangements are sometimes made for very small
    classes and for independent study.  If it is presumed
    that a student spends two hours out of class in
    preparation for each hour in class, the 15-hour week in
    class becomes a 45-hour student workweek applied directly
    to the subject matter of the curriculum.  It is a matter
    of common observation that only the rare adolescent
    undergraduate can so organize his week as to find 45
    hours for attention to curriculum subject matter without
    severe and undesirable pressures on his health, his
    social life, his normal amusements, voluntary reading and
    relaxations.  (283 20)
       From the standpoint of size...several methods of
    instruction may be classified:  (1) lecture 80 to 400+,
    average 250, (2) lecture-discussion 25 to 150, average
    75, (3) seminar 8 to 20, average 12, (4) tutorial 1 to 6,
    average 3.  (283 23)
       Full-time faculty teaching is taken as 9 hours a week
    in the classroom...(283 29)
       A model is an abstraction.  It is useful in exciting
    the imagination and in helping us to see beyond present
    complexities and limitations to an ideal design for the
    future.  But the model as an objective and without
    sustained and energetic effort to make it a reality,
    unplanned and undirected change is not likely to lead to
    acceptable solutions...(283 45)
       Upon election to the presidency he was regarded as a
    colleague, although now the first among equals.  (283 47)
       In short, the college was a unit.  It was held
    together by a clearly perceived and accepted purpose, by
    a coherent curriculum, and by professional and social
    relationships in which similarity of training, interests
    and institutional roles served as a cohesive force.  The
    unity of the early nineteenth-century liberal college
    began to break down with the industrialization and
    urbanization of American society.  (283 48)
       Traditional arrangements for the government of the
    colleges also were under stress.  Faculty time and energy
    otherwise available for teaching and scholarship were
    diverted to committee service, much of it routine in
    character.  And the sense of the faculty as a unitary,
    corporate entity was weakened.  (283 49)
       The college community is characteristically democratic
    and individualistic.  (283 50)
       Within the departmental structure individualism is
    dominant.  (283 52)
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 258                                   Scholar

       When depicted on an organization chart, a college
    resembles any other institution following the
    hierarchical pattern.  The chain of command
    runs...ultimately to the individual teacher.  (283 55)
       The spirit which the teacher brings to the classroom
    is uniquely important.  To impose upon him a change in
    curriculum or teaching method which does not invoke his
    enthusiasm is self-defeating.  (283 56)
       The deterioration of the economic status of the
    teaching profession has been gradual and is not
    perceptible to any one generation.  Educational and
    public leadership has not been able to convey in terms
    meaningful to the college teacher a conviction that there
    is a deep national interest in reversing the process of
    professional deterioration.  (283 59)
       The American Association of University Professors -
    the principal national association representing teachers
    and scholars rather than disciplines or institutions -
    has not assumed leadership in counteracting this view.
    The individual faculty member usually does not have basic
    information about the way the teaching resources of the
    institution are being used.  Lacking this basic
    information, it is small wonder that the individual
    teacher does not see the possibilities of improving his
    economic status by means of an institutional program
    using total faculty resources more efficiently.
    Moreover, significant progress depends upon collective
    rather than individual action.  (283 60)
       Students taught in large classes perform on
    examinations about as well as students taught in small
    classes, and in spite of a centuries-long history of
    effective lecturing by talented teachers for appropriate
    subject matter.  There is also, of course, the widely
    accepted but unproved belief that the lower the
    student-teacher ratio in an institution, the higher the
    quality of education.  (283 63)
       Proposals for more effective use of teaching resources
    often lack concreteness about what is to be done with the
    savings.  (283 64)
       For a particular institution, the first step is to
    determine whether it is facing a serious crisis.
    (283 65)
       Centralized leadership is essential.  A college is a
    diverse institution, and the typical curriculum is
    incredibly complex.  Sound planning for change requires
    central direction and coordination...  Finally, there
    must be in the mechanism, and eventually throughout the
    college, a sharp sense of responsibility and
    accountability for the recommendations made and the
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 259                                   Scholar

    actions taken.  (283 68)
 
       A faculty-centered mechanism.
 
       Educational policy is traditionally the domain of the
    faculty.  To turn away from the faculty completely in the
    present crisis would be to imply that neither the faculty
    as a body nor as individuals are capable of discharging a
    basic institutional responsibility.  (283 71)
       But there are so many facts, so much to know, and so
    little time!  (283 78)
       The individual who has been granted academic freedom
    will use his privileges according to what might be called
    an academic conscience, that is, he will not teach his
    students as true what he himself knows to be false;
    second, that if a teacher should in good conscience be in
    error, free discussion in the classroom, on the campus,
    in another class, reading and general free communication
    will bring victory to the truth.  (283 86-87)
 
       Accountability.
 
       The idea of accountability in higher education is
    quite simple.  It means that colleges and universities
    are responsible for conducting their affairs so that the
    outcomes are worth the cost.  The significant steps in
    attaining true institutional accountability are (1) to
    define the goals and to order their priorities, (2) to
    identify and measure the outcomes, (3) to compare the
    goals and the outcomes and then to judge the degree to
    which the goals are being achieved, and (4) to measure
    the cost and judge the degree to which it approaches a
    reasonable minimum.  (276 1-2)
       The three services of higher education - instruction,
    research and scholarship, and public service - are all
    based on a single unified activity:  learning, defined as
    knowing the known and discovering the new.  The basic
    function of a professor, of a faculty, or of an
    institution is to learn.  A college or university is a
    center of learning.  The three services of higher
    education simply represent dissemination of learning to
    different groups.  (276 8)
       For several reasons, to measure or assess the products
    of higher education is extraordinarily difficult.  For
    one thing, these products are highly intangible.  For
    individuals, they consist of changes in knowledge,
    traits, values, attitudes, and skills.  For society, they
    are accretions to knowledge and technology, changes in
    the conduct of social and public affairs, and changes in
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 260                                   Scholar

    the underlying institutions and culture.  (276 15)

 Science for management

       Science is not a collection of facts; it is the
    organization of the facts under general laws, and the
    laws in turn are held together by such concepts, such
    creations of the human mind, as gravitation.  The facts
    are endless chaos; science is the activity of finding in
    them some order.  And this order is not merely a
    shorthand for the facts; it is what gives them meaning,
    it is their meaning.  Science is the human activity of
    finding an order in nature by organizing the scattered
    meaningless facts under universal concepts.  (65 255)
 
       If we grant that what we think of man and society may
    change, then we must be free to inquire and speculate
    about both.  Ethics is not a final system but an
    activity.  This is what William Clifford said:
       Remember, then, that scientific thought is the guide
    of action; that the truth at which it arrives is not that
    which we can ideally contemplate without error, but that
    which we may act upon without fear; and you cannot fail
    to see that scientific thought is not an accompaniment or
    condition of human progress, but human progress itself.
       And if we think in this way, constantly, about the
    relations which engage men in society, we shall make a
    stronger ethic than any preached from the pulpits.
    (65 258)
 
       Purpose of science.

       The object of all science is to explain things.  What
    do we mean by a scientific explanation?  An observed fact
    is explained by reference to a general principle, that
    is, by showing that the occurrance of this fact under the
    given circumstances can be predicted from the principle.
    To first establish such an explanatory principle or
    theoretical generalization, many particular events must
    be observed and classified into general categories that
    make them comparable.  To explain a principle requires a
    more general proposition from which this and other
    similarly specific principles can be inferred.  (5 10)
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 261                                   Scholar

        Science is -

    classify                data            ,
    construct               concepts        ,
    hypothesize             cause/effect    ,
    verify      significant principles/laws , and
    cumulate    consistent  structure/theory. (284 4,7)

       To strive for heightened consciousness is observable
 in most individuals.  Consciousness is sensual; defined by
 sense inputs of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.
 Additionally, individuals have a sense of emotional feelings
 as defined by psychology as continuum poles of freedom-fear,
 love-hate, and joy-sorrow.  The first five senses are the
 data of science.  The latter three scales are the facts of
 art.
       In terms of Theory W - "was is what you saw,"

 represents the data of science.
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 262                                   Scholar
 
 Table 35 - A hierarchy of science
 ____________________________________________________________
 
  Descriptor   Branch      Comment
  ____________ ___________ ________________
 
               logic       the why, the way
  abstract     mathmatics  2 + 2 = 5
               astronomy
               chemistry
  physical     physics     directed force
               botany
               zoology
  natural life biology
               psychiatry
  behavioral   psychology  self
               engineering
               law
               business
  applied      economics
 ____________________________________________________________
 Note: (284 5).
       Management science can be seen as harnessed by the
 objectives mentality, rather than looking up to a more
 philosophical answer to the question, "Why?"
       Another entrapment was that functional organization
 was still not separated from the formal organization
 structure (122 223).
    Theory W shares the above goals but goes further in
 defining a practical functional organization structure.
 Theory W moves to view organization structure as three
 dimensional - formal, informal, and functional.
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 263                                   Scholar

       Backfit to social science.

       The book is developing social science at the same time
    it is developing organizational science.  (105 132)
 
       Poor organization science.
 
       Whereas the science of mechanics has found its basics
    in the lever, pulley, and inclined plane, the
    conventional social sciences still operate with presumed
    basics that more nearly resemble the level of complexity
    of a chain bicycle drive or the steering mechanism of an
    automobile.  Neither, of course, is basic; rather, each
    is a particular configuration of simpler mechanical
    principles.  (105 6)

       The infancy of social science thusly fails to explain
 the necessary basics by its own admission.
       Systems theory follows from the application of
 science toward a better life.
 
       As sciences go, systems theory is young.  It is rather
    totally a post-World War II product and might be said to
    have got seriously underway...in 1954.  (105 6)"
 
       System definition.
 
       Any two or more interacting or interrelated components
    can constitute a system.  (105 27)
 
       A system may be defined literally as an organized or
    complex whole; an assemblage or combination of things or
    parts forming a complex or unitary whole.  (170 10)

       System effect.

       Effectiveness applies to the aim of the whole.

       System efficiency.

       Efficiency applies to the tasks.  An organization is
 effective, a repetitive task is efficient.

       Coordination structure.
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 264                                   Scholar

       The social science approach to (in)formal organization
    dampens ideas, creativity and synergism.  The words do
    not appear in the index.  The social route precludes task
    relationships which are fundamental for functional
    organization, "If the actions of two or more parties are
    consciously coordinated toward a joint effect, the
    organization is formal.  It is informal if the joint
    effect is produced without conscious coordination...
    (105 17)
       Functional hierarchy idea. Ansoff's (1965) purpose

 was -

       to synthesize and unify...an overall analytic approach
    to solving the TOTAL strategic problem of the firm, and
    make the analytic framework practical.
       He began with the then well-developed capital
 investment theory (122 13-4) and moved to suggest the

 adaptive search method with characteristics as follows -

       (1) a cascade procedure of successive narrowing and
    refining the decision rules, (2) feedback between stages
    in the cascade, (3) a gap-reduction process within each
    stage, and (4) adaptation of both objectives and the
    starting-point evaluation.  (122 28)
 
       Starting with an intrasystem focus on a given system,
    one can move upward to its interactions with other
    systems.  Similarly, starting with a focus on a given
    interaction, one can move upward to the larger system
    created by the interaction or downward to the separate
    systems engaged in the interaction.  (105 20)
       The social perspective is preoccupied with larger or
 smaller systems rather than equal links in the chain of
 support or service.

       Organization defined.

       An organization is any system that consists of two or
    more interacting human beings.  (105 31)
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 265                                   Scholar
       Formal represents the responsibility hierarchy - who
 reports about work to whom.  Informal represents the
 unstructured synergistic work relationship which humans do.
 Humans do mental and physical work - all of the time - 24
 hours a day.  Mental work is exemplified as critical
 thinking, which, together with code work, makes up the
 definition of communication.  Unformal (functional) defines
 the product work task interrelationships apart from the
 responsibility relationship.

       Formal org purpose.

       Human beings and formal organizations are a subset...
    that we can call purposeful.  (105 51)
 
       Scientific purpose.
 
       The object of all science is to explain things.  What
    do we mean by a scientific explanation?  An observed fact
    is explained by reference to a general principle, that
    is, by showing that the occurrence of this fact under the
    given circumstances can be predicted from the principle.
    To first establish such an explanatory principle or
    theoretical generalization, many particular events must
    be observed and classified into general categories that
    make them comparable.  To explain a principle requires a
    more general proposition from which this and other
    similarly specific principles can be inferred.  (5 10)
       Proposition - if work is made visible the objective
 will more probably be accomplished and productivity will
 increase.
       Action vs statistics. Statistical significance is not
 the point, logical, causal action clarity which appeals to
 the worker is needed so that the worker chooses to act in
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 266                                   Scholar
 support of the organization objective.
       Social org and work. Modern organization was born of

 the corporation.  Drucker (1946) stated -

       Nothing could induce the overwhelming majority of the
    American people to give up the belief in a
    free-enterprise economic system except a major
    catastrophe such as a new total war or a new total
    depression.  (123 1)
       Drucker continued to observe the corporation as human
 effort (123 20) - the essence of the corporation is social,
 that is human organization (123 21).

       Human effort.

       Work includes all activities directly or indirectly
    related to the creation of goods and services needed or
    desired by man...it includes the production of
    commodities, administrative activities and activities
    aimed at economic intercourse (commerce).  (285 11)
 
       Fourier noted that human beings have a natural love
    for activity (work) which is already present among
    children at two years of age.  He believed that people
    have the opportunity to express themselves through work.
    (285 402)
 
       Robert Owen considered work as a source of pleasure
    and joy.  Proudhom considered work the fundamental
    element of man's life....Science comes from work:  it is
    work which generates knowledge.  (285 403)
 
       Pistrak.  Work is the content and means of education.
    Students must study work (as a content), participate in
    different forms of work (as a means) and analyze their
    participation and the conditions of work themselves...
    Educative work has to be real work, it has to create
    useful objects.  It is not any work that has educational
    value, but collective work.  Collective work involves the
    accomplishment of tasks by the group considered as a
    unity.  Unification of different groups in a common
    vision of their work becomes a totalization or
    integration of the work of different groups.  Collective
    responsibility for the work as a whole, not individual
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 267                                   Scholar

    responsibility for the individual work done by each one,
    is then vital.  (285 405-406)
 
       Pistrak pointed out the importance of the school as
    the cultural center...Organized through the
    self-organization of the students, and with the open
    participation of teachers, the school becomes a place for
    training children for participation, independent
    organization, and collectivism.  Students'
    self-organization is an important tool to prepare
    participative and critical citizens.  But
    self-organization is not individualist bourgeois freedom.
    (285 410)
 
       Makarenko worked to transform, through the example of
    the teacher and of administrators, and through strong
    emphasis on persuasion...a participative group of people
    with socially valuable goals.  Despite his belief in
    authority and in strong leadership, he allowed an
    increasing level of administrative decentralization and
    participation...  (285 412)
 
       The administrative principle of collective
    self-management:  the work pedagogy needs a basis of
    freedom and equality to grow and to be effective.
    Alienated work cannot be a tool to generate knowledge and
    to allow the rise of critical consciousness.  The
    administrative principle of collective self-management,
    of which the fundamental element is the free
    participation of all (and equal) members of the
    collective...  (285 422)
 
       Job education.
       Referencing 286 - for five training and development
 personnel in five settings, the exploratory study (20 days
 each setting) examined their work via direct structured
 observational methods of data collection.  Forms recorded
 frequency, duration, and activity purpose, and the nature of
 interaction with others.  Recorded observations were
 analyzed quantitatively giving these characteristics:  (1)
 long hours, (2) sustained work pace, (3) many activities of
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 268                                   Scholar
 short duration, (4) frequent interruptions, (6) close
 interpersonal contacts, (7) emphasis on verbal
 communication, (8) contacts primarily with the line
 organization and essential services, and (9) educational
 emphasis in the work.  The thrust of the jobs studied was
 seemingly last.  Also, time priority was not included.
 Apparently, member control was deemphasized.
       Second phase of the reference 286 analysis grouped
 similar or related work purposes.  Task areas were:  (1)
 identify needs, (2) plan programs, (3) develop courses, (4)
 develop materials, (5) instruct individuals, (6) evaluate
 individuals, (7) consult clients, (8) administer program,
 (9) administer facilities, (10) manage organization, (11)
 exchange information, (12) laissez internals, and (13)
 laissez externals.  Major areas being administration,

 education, and public relations.

       It was concluded that training and development was
    concerned mainly with management of the resources for
    learning in an organization.  The Training Manager's job
    combines managerial work, adult education and the
    maintenance of relationships with a network of
    individuals and groups.  (286 iii-iv)40
    When training employees,41 especially managers and
 administrators, they can be encouraged to avoid the trapping
 of some social scientists.  The quote below is attributed to

 G.C.Homans.

       Some social scientists will do any mad thing rather
   than study men at first hand in their natural
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 269                                   Scholar

    surroundings.  (287 117)
       Rather let this sort of detail be done by every
 individual member looked at as the expert worker, able to
 tap into a data set which represents the work flow.  It
 doesn't matter what is defined in detail within the tasks,
 since the manager has better things to do.

 ____________________
 
       40 Other training & development and human resources
 development information.  (Also added to the bibliography.)
       294 W.R.Tracy (1974) Managing training and development
 systems.  New York: AMACOM.  P.46 - the job being the same
 from one organization to another.
       279 I.K.Davies (ed) (1971) The organization of
 training.  London England: McGraw-Hill.  P.22 - the
 teacher-manager and the training manager as one and the
 same.
       289 H.Mintzberg (1968) The manager at
 work: Determining his activities, roles and programs by
 structured observation.  Massachusetts Institute of
 Technology, Sloan School of Management.  Unpublished
 doctoral dissertation.
       290 H.Mintzberg (1970) Structured observation as a
 method to study managerial work.  The Journal of Management
 Studies.  V.7,p.87-104.
       291 H.Mintzberg (1971) Managerial work: Analysis from
 observation.  Management Science.  V.18,p.B97-110.
       292 H.Mintzberg (1973) The nature of managerial work.
 New York: Harper & Row.
       293 H.Mintzberg (1973).  P.230 - descriptive material
 on the content of management work.

       41 Other adult learning information -
       295 M.S.Knowles (ed) (1960) Handbook of adult
 education in the United States.  Chicago IL: Adult Education
 Association Of the U.S.A.
       296 M.S.Knowles (1970) The modern practice of adult
 education.  New York: Association Press.  P.22.
       297 M.S.Knowles (1973) The adult learner: A neglected
 species.  Houston TX: Gulf.
       298 M.S.Knowles (1975) Looking ahead.  Training and
 Development Journal.  V.29,p.20.
       299 Knowles & Hart (1975).
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 270                                   Scholar
       Managerial work in terms of ten roles (288 58-93).
 The interpersonal roles:  (1) figurehead, (2) leader, (3)
 liaison.  The informational roles:  (4) monitor, (5)
 disseminator, (6) spokesperson.  The decisional roles:  (7)
 entrepreneur, (8) disturbance handler, (9) resource
 allocator, (10) negotiator.
       Other Mintzberg views - the purpose of a manager or
 administrator (288 95-96), the eight managerial job types
 (288 126-129), and propositions about variations in
 managers' work (288 129-131).

       Behavior limitation.

       The insight into worker motivation developed by the
    Western Electric experiments has produced a varied body
    of literature dominated by behavioral scientists like
    Argyris, Bennis, Likert, McGregor, Roethlisberger, Whyte,
    and Zalesnik...At its best the work...has increased
    general awareness of the psychological and social
    determinants of human behavior.  At its weakest it has
    led to the oversimplifications of McGregor's Theory X and
    Theory Y, the Likert group's passion preference for
    participative management, the exaggerations attending the
    growth of...sensitivity training and the Blake-Mouton
    managerial grid.  Biases and special preoccupations...
    limit their use of Barnard's concepts of purpose,
    leadership, and responsibility.  (4 xv-i)
       The authority of the aim wants to be personified.  If
 the universal human needs are existence, relatedness, and
 growth, and if each person works with the universal good
 feelings of joy, love, and freedom, then aim authority can
 be seen as the viable structure of human organization.
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 271                                   Scholar

 Occupational paralysis

       The force of tradition, of habit, in human affairs is
    obstinate and persistent.  There is a well-recognized
    tendency among the members of established professions to
    imagine that their procedures are sacrosanct, beyond
    question, and that no lessons of utility can be drawn
    from the practice of other callings.  It is a tendency
    for which the French have coined the phrase, `deformation
    professionelle.' It is almost untranslatable in English.
    Perhaps `occupational paralysis' comes nearest to
    expressing the meaning.  (164 xvi)
       Occupational paralysis has occured.  Past management
 tools have been invented, attempting to solve the
 difficulties of organizing functionally, and they have
 languished in varying degrees of paralysis - systems
 approach, OR, PERT, MS, MIS, and renewed bureaucracy are
 some.

       OR and PERT.

    The systems approach was stimulated by the development of
    Operations Research (OR):  linear programming Monte Carlo
    methods, and game theory...
       The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is
    a planning and controlling method which represents the
    systems approach in its orientation and is extensively
    used in the aerospace and defense industries.  (12 18)
 
       Management science (MS).
 
       The real test of the benefit derived from an OR/MS
    model is the degree of improvement achieved after the
    solution to the model has been implemented.  Starting
    from the early days of operations research, and well into
    the middle 60s, the problem of implementation has been a
    major obstacle in the effectiveness of management
    science.  According to a study by Abrams, even in the
    best cases only 75 percent of the OR was classified by
    most executives as "blue-sky research and development,"
    today it is being looked upon as an activity which may
    yield a profit.  As a matter of fact, today many
    executives show pride in employing OR techniques, and
 

 
 
 
 
 
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    some of them may even be going too far (which may be
    rather costly) in the use of quantitative techniques.
    Three phenomena are the major reasons for this change in
    the attitude of managers:  (1) the higher level of
    education of executives in general and thee increasing
    sophistication of executives, achieved through various
    refresher-type postgraduate courses in business
    administration; (2) the notable success achieved by OR in
    its short history; and, (3) the increasing availability
    of software "canned" computer programs and the decreasing
    cost of using computers.
       However, even with all of these developments,
    implementation continues to be a definite problem in many
    management science areas.  The results of a number of
    interviews and discussions conducted by the authors
    appear to indicate that in many cases OR practitioners
    are spending more time on salesmanship than they spend on
    the technical aspects of the projects, especially when
    they are dealing with top managers.  (33 367)
 
       Management Information Science (MIS).
 
       Professionals in the field of information sciences
    genuinely believe that work-life has become so
    complicated that the only way to achieve effective
    management is through the expanded and deepened
    rationally available from sophisticated information
    systems.  These men have a sense of mission, expressed by
    one man I met recently in a multibillion-dollar
    corporation:  "We want to unfreeze this colossus and push
    it into the twenty-first century"
       A major assumption of information scientists is that
    if real-life situations can be adequately modeled (with
    valid inputs to a computer model) then action will be
    more effective.  To put it another way:  more and more of
    the complex decisions of life can be influenced by
    rational thought.  (33 382)
 
       In many companies, valid data on important problems
    would reveal a maze of coverups, elaborate fictions,
    incompetence, missed opportunities, and distrust.  All
    these things can impede an organization from reaching its
    goals, or even keep it from rationally defining its
    goals.  Valid data for an MIS would reveal to many
    managements how much has been hidden from it all these
    years.
       No wonder, then, that MIS seems such a threat and that
    we face the irony of irrational resistance to potentially
    rational processes.
 

 
 
 
 
 
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       With regard to MIS, there does exist some valid basis
    for resistance, or at least skepticism.  Many executives
    agree that increased rationality is a worthwhile goal.
    But they express opposition in terms of two specific
    issues:  1) they don't understand the new information
    technology, and 2) they don't believe it's wise to use
    such technology when it still hasn't proved itself.
    These are acceptable, albeit temporary objections.
    (33 383)
 
       The manager is now in a double bind.  If he follows
    the new rationality, he will succeed as a manager and fail
    as a human being.  Here's how it works:  A manager sees a
    world in which he can be held increasingly accountable
    for wider ranges of information.  He says to himself:
    Ten years ago I could go to the board and say, "I'm
    sorry, I didn't know this was going to happen."  Today
    the board can ask me, "Why didn't you have a venture
    analysis made?  Why didn't your model include other
    alternatives?"  I have no out.
       There's his dilemma.  If his models are incomplete,
    he can be fired for not including all the data.  If the
    models are complete, he gets frightened, not because he
    can be fired, but because he's useless.  He's
    psychologically fired.
       A third impact the MIS can have is on power.  MIS
    emphasizes the use of valid information and technical
    competence rather than formal power to manage
    organizations.  MIS emphasizes what is done and how it
    gets done, not just who does it or who gets credit for
    it.  (33 389)
 
    In one company I studied recently, MIS team members
    developed several ways to cope with their dilemmas.
    First, they convinced themselves it was their mission "To
    force people to become more explicit in their thinking,
    in order to be more effective."  Another put it this way:
    "It's my job to make people think through what the hell
    their objectives are."  (33 392)
 
       In contrast, sometimes the MIS team tried to be
    diplomatic.  Their diplomacy came in the form of
    translating their ideas into simple managerial language,
    by suppressing (they thought) their disrespect for the
    low intellectual caliber among the managers, and by not
    confronting the managers on any threatening issues.
       But their diplomacy didn't last long.  When they met
    too much resistance they either withdrew or became
    aggressive and competitive in return.  To make matters
 

 
 
 
 
 
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    worse, their feelings of intellectual superiority were no
    longer concealed and they come across to their intended
    clients as arrogant.
       The manager's reactions to threats and arrogance can
    be predicted.  His feelings of mistrust, suspicion, and
    fears of inadequacy find ways to influence other managers
    to let the MIS group atrophy or be disbanded.  (33 392)
 
       The first step is for all concerned to become aware
    that MIS (or any other new system) is not the basic
    problem.  The basic problem is that organizations are
    full of concealed dysfunctional actions and defenses that
    are revealed by MIS.  Perhaps if ways could be found to
    make quantitative models more accurately reflect the
    world as line managers experience it, their fears and
    resistances would be lowered.  But that is more a hope
    than a likelihood.
       However, there is research and experience in some
    areas relevant to reducing such organizational problems.
    These are the areas of interpersonal, group, and
    intergroup functioning.  Knowledge is beginning to be
    developed about how individuals can increase their
    interpersonal competence and the effectiveness of their
    group relationships.  But this means modifying current
    organization strategies which preclude dealing openly
    with personal, interpersonal, and intergroup problems.
    (33 393)
 
       Renewed bureaucracy.
 
       Almost all modern administrative organizations (as
    well as some ancient ones) are bureaucratically
    organized.  Weber enumerates the distinctive
    characteristics of this type of organization in the
    following way:42

       1. Organization tasks are distributed among the
    various positions as official duties.  Implied is a
    clear-cut division of labor among positions which makes
    possible a high degree of specialization.
    Specialization, in turn, promotes expertness among the
    staff, both directly and by enabling the organization to

 ____________________
 
       42 Weber's discussion of these characteristics may
 be found in H.H.Gerth & C.W.Mills (1946) From Max
 Weber: Essays in sociology.  New York: Oxford University
 Press.  P.196-204,329-36.
 

 
 
 
 
 
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    hire employees on the basis of their technical
    qualifications.  (5 32)
       2. The positions or offices are organized into a
    hierarchical authority structure.
       3. A formally established system of rules and
    regulations governs official decisions and actions.
       4. Officials are expected to assume an impersonal
    orientation in their contacts with clients and with other
    officials.
       5. Employment by the organization constitutes a career
    for officials.  (5 32-3)
 
       Paralysis continues.
 
       Managers at lower levels manipulate information to
    protect their interests.  A modern management system,
    where information is controlled from the top, will make
    such manipulation difficult.  In addition, such a
    management system may change the job of lower and middle
    management to be less challenging, and without
    self-responsibility.  In addition to the impact on
    individuals, management systems will have an impact on
    the structure of the organization.  The relationship
    among departments will be changed, and the power balance
    will be upset.  Thus, managers will have good reasons to
    resist change.  (33 368)

       A productive system. The opposite of paralysis can be
 seen as productivity.  Note what a small amount of work the
 U.S.Government's measurement of productivity covers.
 Combined with other reasons, the productivity approach to
 functional organization has failed.  The general idea of a
 system, however, still maintains a basis for theory
 development.

       Systems approach.
 
       In general, a systems approach indicates a primary
    interest in studying whole situations and relationships,
    rather than organizational segments.  (12 16)
 
       The systems approach to management shares a number of
    characteristics with Taylor's earlier work in that both
 

 
 
 
 
 
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    are relatively impersonal in orientation, emphasize the
    use of the methods of science, and have resulted in
    contributions to the planning process.  As if to
    highlight this similarity, the quantitative systems
    approach has frequently been called management science,
    as contrasted to Taylor's scientific management.  (12 18)
 
       Many of Fayol's general principles of management were
    concerned with....the systems approach to management...to
    view any organization as representing a communication
    structure.  (12 18)
       Thus Theory W bases upon the principles of being
 whole, relative, impersonal, quantitative, strategic, and
 tactical.

       Rationality is one of the highest order goals in
    civilization.  To be sensible, to use the power of
    reason, to avoid emotionalism in making
    decisions--civilized people honor and value these
    characteristics and often strive to attain them.  To be
    rational is to be good.  We have even created our
    organizations with rationality in mind:  If every man
    behaves reasonably and sensibly, then bureaucratic
    structures (our dominant form of organization) can
    achieve their goals.  Of course, for organizational
    managers and executives to conduct their affairs
    rationally, they also need to know a lot of things.
    (33 381)

       The entire functional organization chart in the form
 of a database can be shown.  Then focus turns to each
 individuals part in supporting the organization's strategy.

       Weekly support.

       Weekly Conference of Department Heads.  In such
    conferences it is not the case of drawing up the plan of
    action of the business, but of facilitating the carrying
    out of this plan in the light of current events.  The
    scope of each conference extends over a short period
    only, normally a week, during which the harmonizing of
    activity and focusing of effort are to be ensured.
    (164 104-5)
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 277                                   Scholar
       To represent the facilitating plan Fayol only offers
 the formal organization chart structure.  The closest he
 comes to charting the organization functions are in the
 charts presented as Tables III, IV, and V (164 12).  Yet
 Fayol offers the earliest-best resume of a functional

 organizer.
 
 Table 36 - Fayol's work-life
 ____________________________________________________________
 
 Age   Comment
 _____ _____________________________________________________
 
 0     Born 1841
 17    School of Mines
 25    Manager
 31    General Manager
 33-52 Wrote technical/scientific publications.
 59-82 Wrote administrative publications
        Paper on Administration
       "Discourse on the General Principles of Adm."
       "Administration, industrielle et generale."
       "Importance of the adm.function in business."
       "A Discourse on Higher Education."
 77    Formed Centre of Administrative Studies.
       Appointed Professor of Higher Commercial Studies
       "The Reform of the Public Services."
       "Positive administration in industry."
       "The Industrialization of the State."
        Administrative Reform of the Posts and Telegraphs.
       "The State cannot administer Posts and Telegraphs."
       "The Theory of Administration in the State."
 ____________________________________________________________
 Note: (164 xviii-xx).

       Principles vs structure.
 
       The managerial function finds its only outlet through
    the members of the organization (body corporate).  Whilst
    the other functions bring into play material and machines
    the managerial function operates only on the personnel.
    There is no limit to the number of principles of
    management, every rule or managerial procedure which
 

 
 
 
 
 
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    strengthens the body corporate or facilitates its
    functioning has a place among the principles so long, at
    least, as experience confirms its worthiness.  (164 19)
       Fayol's first principle among 14 (164 19-20) was the
 Division of Work.  The last were Initiative and Esprit de
 corps.

       Division of work.

       Division of work permits of reduction in the number of
    objects to which attention and effort must be directed
    and has been recognized as the best means of making use
    of individuals...  it results in specialization of
    functions and separation of powers.  Division of work has
    its limits which experience and a sense of proportion
    teach us may not be exceeded.  (164 20)
 
       Tricky theory building.
 
       The task of creating the foundation for a theory is
    difficult, and it becomes even more formidable when one
    desires to create a scaffolding upon which to hand and
    interrelate as much of the existing literature as
    possible without doing violence to the basic results of
    each individual study.  (165 x-xi)
       System building. A scientific coordinate system - a
 map of everything in its place has been a dream far back
 into history.  The quest to provide order for one's world

 can be seen as humanly universal.

       The use of mathmatics to describe the whereabouts of
    moving bodies...  has an ancient history; it was thought
    natural long before Copernicus and Galileo.
       The notion of imposing a gigantic coordinate system on
    the universe was certainly, in Descartes's mind, one step
    in giving [the world] logical order.  It was plain to
    Hobbes that the world could be rational as Euclid, if he
    could find in its progression some analogue to logical
    entailment.  He found this analogue in the principle of
    cause and effect.  (64 42)
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 279                                   Scholar

        Induction vs deduction.
 
       The generation which followed...abandoned once for all
    the attempt to deduce the laws of nature from her facts,
    by any process of forward reasoning.  Instead, the
    scientists invented a more tentative method.  They
    singled out a set of principles or axioms, such as
    Newton's laws of motion...and they judged the axioms
    right or wrong by checking their fictitious world against
    the real world.  In my view, this is the essence of the
    inductive mind.  (64 43)
 
       Purpose of experiment.
 
       The purpose of experiment is to increase the size of
    the sample on which a theory is tested.  In this,
    experiments are not all alike.  Good experiments are more
    systematic than the random samples yielded by mere
    observation.  And critical experiments are highly
    stratified samples in the variables under scrutiny.  But
    however well the model fits nature at the sample points,
    the reasoning from there to its fit at all points can
    only be probable.  It is in this sense that induction
    gives only a probable assurance of the rightness of a
    scientific theory...
       All forms of sampling give only probable information
    about the population from which the sample is drawn.  In
    testing a scientific theory by experiment, we try to get
    information about a population of natural events from a
    sample.  We try to convince ourselves that this
    population matches the configurations generated by our
    model everywhere, by showing that they match at the
    sample points.  A good deal of nonsense has been talked
    about probability in science by those who have missed
    this conception.  Some philosophers speak of probable
    theories and some even speak as though facts can be
    probable.  Facts are so or not so; observations are true
    or false; and theories are right or wrong.  All that is
    probable is the assurance that we can have in extending
    what is known in experience to what is unknown - in
    arguing from a known sample to a larger unknown one.
    (64 47)
 
       But when I have said that our observations are only a
    sample of events, I have opened up a graver difficulty.
    We cannot now be sure that we have sampled all the
    properties of the natural objects we are studying.  We
    must expect these objects to have properties which have
    not been observed or, what is the same thing, to which we
 

 
 
 
 
 
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    have paid no attention.  And we cannot expect these
    properties also to be consequences of a Theory Which has
    taken no account of them, and to be displayed by a model
    conceived in ignorance of them.  This is a deeper
    criticism of the inductive method...The aim of the
    inductive method is to reduce the description of the
    universe to a chain of deductions from a finite set of
    axioms.  If this aim is to be reasonable, then all the
    properties of a natural object must flow from some set of
    defining properties.  What makes an object unique also
    must make it behave precisely as it does.  (64 48)
 
       I have been speaking so far as if the scientist who
    wants to make a theory has a task no more difficult than
    Euclid when he wanted to draw up a set of axioms.  But
    the world is not so simple.  Euclid's axioms were really
    simple experiences in geometry...From the outset [of
    science], the Greek mathmaticians and the Greek atomists
    approached nature with the notion that there is something
    to be learned:  she has meaning.  This belief was largely
    lost in the Dark Ages, which saw matter as a perpetual
    accident, kept in place from moment to moment by a new
    act of grace.  Natural science did not flourish again
    until men like Alberti and Leonardo were ravaged by a new
    hunger for meaning.  Like the Greeks, they were convinced
    that nature has a message.  What we have been doing ever
    since is to look for the code.  I use the word "code"
    designedly and literally.  (64 49)
 
       The process of building a scientific system is an
    awkward one...There is, in fact, only one positive
    procedure to be laid down.  It is to treat the processes
    of nature as messages, and to look for the code which
    shall make them the most meaningful or.  (what in this
    context is the same thing) most informative.  (64 51)
 
       We regard nature as composed of processes.  (and not
    of single objects or events) We regard the sentences
    which describe these processes as written in code.  The
    scientific procedure is to break down the code into its
    constituent symbols and their laws of arrangement.  So
    far, this is essentially the procedure for setting up an
    axiomatic system.  But we add to it the requirement that
    the code is to make nature as meaningful as possible.
    That is:  science is formally the search for code which
    shall maximize the information content of the messages
    which record the processes of nature.  Both observation
    and description are limited in their fineness, and this
    sets a limit to the process of decoding.  We can liken
 

 
 
 
 
 
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    this to the presence of a basic level of noise under the
    message.  We ourselves provide a grosser element of
    random noise in practice by our experimental errors.  But
    these limitations apart, we assume that nature write her
    messages free from noise:  nothing in her processes is
    arbitrary.  And nothing in her processes is meaningless;
    if we could only read them, her messages are everywhere
    dense with information.  (64 52)
 
       A code message is a linear arrangement of its symbols.
    It offers, therefore, only one dimension of structure...
    What I have called a code sentence or message does not
    describe an object or event:  it does not describe a
    fixed structure.  Such objects or events, such
    structures, are to be incorporated in the symbols
    themselves, and the internal arrangement of parts in a
    code symbol or group of symbols can be given as many
    dimensions as we find necessary.  The code groups have a
    function space of their own.  What the message represents
    is always a process.  It is a sentence which summarizes
    an experiment.  That indeed has a dimension imposed on
    it:  and the dimension is time.  (64 54)
 
       Strategy.
 
       I shall distinguish between two concepts, the usual
    concept of a closed or bounded plan (that is, a tactic or
    solution for a defined problem), and a new concept of an
    open or unbounded plan, that is, a general strategy.
    (64 176)
 
       Organization evolution.
 
       Life has two separate components...Life is not only
    process of accurate copying...Life is also and
    essentially an evolutionary process, which moves forward
    only because there are errors in the copy, and every so
    often one of these errors is successful enough to be
    incorporated as another step or threshold in its
    progression.  The [copying error] machinery of life
    ensures the death of individuals.  (64 182)
 
       There are five distinct principles which make up the
    concept of evolution, as I interpret it.  They are:
       1. family descent
       2. natural selection
       3. Mendelian inheritance
       4. fitness for change
       5. stratified stability. (64 188)
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 282                                   Scholar

        In order that a species shall be capable of changing
    to fit its environment tomorrow, it must maintain its
    fitness for change today.  The dormant genes that may be
    promoted tomorrow when they become useful must be
    preserved today when they are useless.  We know now that
    there are single genes which function specifically to
    enhance variability.  A master gene of this kind, which
    increases mutation, as a mechanism that opens up the
    future, not by foreseeing it but by promoting the
    capacity for change.  (64 189)
 
       Evolutionary strength.
 
       But exactly this machinery also ensures the evolution
    of new forms.  The errors which destroy the individual
    are also the origin of species.  Without these errors,
    there would be no evolution, because there would be no
    raw material of genetic mutants for natural selection to
    work on.  There would only be one universal form of life,
    and however well adapted that might have been to the
    environment in which it was formed, it would have
    perished long ago in the first sharp change of climate.
    (64 182-3)
 
       Complexity needs org.
 
       Evolution has the direction, speaking roughly, from
    simple to more and more complex:  more and more complex
    functions of higher organisms, mediated by more and more
    complex structures.  (64 176)
 
       Causal reductionism.

       Creative evolution.
 
       There are indeed contexts in philosophy in which
    reductionism is not enough.  But reductionism is valid
    and sufficient when it is a historical explanation, so
    that it presents a temporal and logical sequence of steps
    by which the result has been reached.  (Indeed, all
    causal explanations are of this kind, and can only be
    challenged if we challenge the first cause.) To reduce a
    whole to its parts is a valid exposition of its plan if
    in fact the parts have come together in time, step by
    step, in building up a sequence of lesser wholes.  So it
    is valid to regard an organism as a historical creation
    whose plan is explained by its evolution.  But the plan
    of life in this sense is unbounded.  Only unbounded plans
    can be creative; and evolution is such a plan, which has
    created what is radically new in life, the dynamic of
 

 
 
 
 
 
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    time.  (64 186-7)
 
       Mechanics vs creation.
 
       The distinction here is between a sequence of actions
    which is fixed in advance by the end state that it must
    reach, and a train of events which is open and unbounded
    to the future because its specific outcome is not
    foreseen.  Any bounded plan is in essence the solution to
    a problem, and life as a mechanism has this character.
    By contrast, the sequence of events that constitutes an
    unbounded plan is invented moment by moment from what has
    gone before, and the outcome is not solved but created.
    Life as an evolution is a creation of this kind.
    (64 187)
 
       Stratified stability.
 
       Evolution is commonly presented, even now, as if it
    required nothing but natural selection to explain its
    action...But an organism is an integrated system, and
    that implies that its coordination is easily disturbed.
    We need a geometrical model of stability in living
    processes (and in the structures that carry them out)
    which is not so landlocked against change.  Moreover, the
    model must express the way in which the more complex
    forms of life arise later in time.  This is the model of
    stratified stability.  (64 190)
 
       Energy and selection.
 
       All living systems are sustained by a net inflow of
    energy.  (64 193)
 
       Two special conditions have assisted this mode of
    climbing form simple to complex.  First, of course, there
    is the energy which comes to us from the sun, which
    increases the number of encounters between simple units
    and helps to lift them over the next energy barrier above
    them.  And second, natural selection speeds up the
    establishment of each new stratum of stability in the
    forms of life.  (64 191)
 
       Stable configurations.
 
       The stratification of stability is fundamental in
    living systems, and it explains why evolution has a
    consistent direction in time.  Single mutations are
    errors at random, and have no fixed direction in time, as
 

 
 
 
 
 
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    we know from experiments.  And natural selection does not
    carry or impose a direction in time either.  But the
    building up of stable configurations does have a
    direction, the more complex stratum built on the next
    lower, which cannot be reversed in general.  (Through
    there can be particular lines of regression, such as
    viruses and other parasites which exploit the more
    complex biological machinery of their hosts.) Here is the
    barb which evolution gives to time:  it does not make it
    go forward, but it prevents it from running backward.
    The back mutations which occur cannot reverse it in
    general, because they do not fit into the level of
    stability which the system has reached:  even though they
    might offer an individual advantage to natural selection,
    they damage the organization of the system as a whole and
    make it unstable.  Because stability is stratified,
    evolution is open, and necessarily creates more and more
    complex forms.  (64 192)
 
       Direction of time.
 
       Time in the large, open time, takes its direction from
    the evolutionary processes which mark and scale it.  So
    it is pointless to ask why evolution has a fixed
    direction in time, and to draw conclusions from the
    speculation.  It is evolution, physical and biological,
    that gives time its direction; and no mystical
    explanation is required where there is nothing to
    explain.  The progression from simple to complex, the
    building of stratified stability, is the necessary
    character of evolution from which time takes its
    direction.  And it is not a forward direction in the
    sense of a thrust toward the future, a headed arrow.
    What evolution doses is to give the arrow of time a barb
    which stops it from running backward; and once it has
    this barb, the chance play of errors will take it forward
    of itself.  (64 195)
 
       Unity.
 
       The administrator and the scientist are basically
    interested in the same question, namely, why people
    behave the way they do...  (165 5)
 
       Practice then writing.
 
       Successful administrative action requires `skills'
    that are derived from, and therefore deeply rooted in,
    systematic research.  (165 9)
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 285                                   Scholar

       Offense vs defense. Once the mission of the body
 corporate is forgotten, the positions of the organization
 chart remain to direct individuals.  As individuals become
 more educated in reasoning, and without the organization
 mission reason apparent, doubt as to the why of directed
 action results.  When actions, by decision of subordinates,
 are judged unsatisfactory, or even contrary, to the 20-20
 hindsight mission, the worker actions are called defense
 mechanisms.  These defense actions are simply actions of the

 worker in the organization.

       Freud revisited.

       Freud was the first to study systematically the
    different kinds of defense mechanisms [actions].  It is
    possible to say that (1) past experience is an important
    factor in determining the choice [of action], and (2)
    anticipation of the punishment [bad-feeling
    actualization] involved may influence the choice.
    (165 37)
       Theory W calls for choices to actions to be reasoned

 toward good feelings from the work involved.

       Freud's remarks on work are scattered very sparsely
    through his writings, and are typically encountered as
    incidental observations.  His evaluation of the
    importance of work in man's psychological economy is
    ambivalent.  (53 111)
 
       Why organizations.
 
       Organizations are formed with a particular objective
    in mind and their structure mirrors these objectives.
    (165 54-5)
 
       Organizations are formed with the intention and design
    of accomplishing goals; and the people who work in
    organizations believe that...most behavior in
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 286                                   Scholar

    organizations is intended rational behavior.  (166 55)

       Flexible tasking.
       So how do we organize correctly?  Theory W picks up
 Fayol's intended assumption (the Tables) which has

 apparently lapsed.  So what do we do to begin correction?

       Nine times out of ten it is impossible to start with a
    clean sheet.  The organizer has to make the best possible
    use of the human material that is already available.  And
    in 89 out of those 90 per cent of cases he has to adjust
    jobs round to fit the man...  (167 55)
 
       Organization plan.
 
       He [the administrator] should expect to be driven from
    it [the plan] here and there.  But he will be driven from
    it far less and his machine [organization] will work much
    more smoothly if he starts with a plan.  (168 56)
 
       Individual org.
 
       The human personality...is always attempting to
    actualize its unique organization of parts resulting from
    a continuous, emotionally laden, ego-involving process of
    growth.  Provide the `endless challenge' desired by the
    healthy personality.  (165 59)
 
       A plurality of parts busily performing their
    particular objective does not form a organization.  A
    pattern of parts must be formed so that the
    interrelationships among the parts create the
    organization.  If the parts being considered are
    individuals, then they must be motivated...  (165 60)
       But the parts of Theory W are not directly the
 individuals, but the work tasks.  The work tasks are then

 chosen by the workers in support of the organization.

       Likert visited.

       Several decades ago Taylor (1911) pointed to the fact
    that human variability in performance could be used to
    discover better ways of doing work [growth].  The social
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 287                                   Scholar

    sciences and their capacity to measure human and
    organization variables are making possible the extension
    of this fundamental idea from the organization of work
    itself to the problem of building the most productive and
    satisfying form of human organization for conducting any
    enterprise [strategic organization].  (163 3)
       The organization of work underlies Likert's system

 (163 237-40):
 
   I.A.Integrated system
     B.Overlapping group structure
     C.Work groups
     D.Leadership
     E.Atmosphere
     F.Personnel
     G.Cooperative working relationships
     H.Measurements facilitate sound decisions based on
    accurate, objective information and thereby permit the
    authority of facts and the law of the situation to
    prevail.  (163 238)
  II.A.Supportive relationships
     B.Information influence
     C.Communication
     D.1.Objectives embraced
       2.(a)Equitably viewed rewards
         (b)Group-building rewards
         (c)Goal-supporting rewards
       3.Individual fulfilled by group success
 III.Competent personnel with expectation of -

    high productivity; products of high quality; low costs;
    low waste; low turnover and absence; high capacity to
    adapt effectively to change; a high degree of enthusiasm
    and satisfaction on the part of its employees, customers,
    and stockholders; and good relations with unions.
    (163 240)
  IV.  Group Building and Maintenance Roles (163 174-5)
     A.Encouraging
     B.Harmonizing
     C.Compromising
     D.Gate-keeping and expediting
     E.Setting standards or ideals
     F.Observing

       Life organization.
 
       Ethics, our ideas of the good life, are founded on
    rules designed to perfect the task of living together...
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 288                                   Scholar

    (169 8)
 
       Frank individualism.
 
       The emergence of principles of administration...with
    reference to the tools it employs or the new facilities
    it is prepared to take into use...[involves]...frank
    individualism...in actual contact with the machines...
    to make them work, have been unable to escape the
    irresistible logic which they impose.  They have been led
    to the methods involving maximum effectiveness...
    (169 9)
 
       This development...is quite irreconcilable with a
    view...which treats questions of organization and
    administration as matters of opinion or attempts to
    arrange the executive aspect...on the basis of
    personalities...  (169 7-8)
 
       The aim which is pursued by all concerned in the
    administration of each group is an objective enlisting
    the interest of the group as a whole, and consistent with
    the interest of all larger groups of which it is a
    part...  (169 8)
 
       Adm equals mgt.
 
       Management - the business term for administration -
    first took shape in a branch of engineering...Scientific
    Management was merely an affirmation that the methods of
    thought, the respect for natural law, which inspired the
    work of chemists and engineers, could and should be
    applied to the human arrangements underlying the use of
    the new and powerful tools they had evolved.  And in the
    art of administration we are as yet barely adolescent.
    (169 10-1)
 
       Urwick revisited.
 
       Imagine that Fayol himself would have inserted
    Investigation.  Certainly to students...the idea of
    research into facts as the basis of all activity is
    fundamental.  And every writer of note is at one on the
    point.  (169 19)
 
       I [Follett] have given four principles of
    organization.  The underpinning of these is information
    based on Research.  (171 17)
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 289                                   Scholar

        They develop a science for each element of a man's
    work which replaces the old rule of thumb method.
    (172 18)
 
       Both sides must recognize as essential the
    substitution of exact scientific investigation and
    knowledge for the old individual judgement or opinion.
    (173 18)
       Thus Urwick presents his interpretation of

 administration principles -
 
       Investigation      [as facts]
       Forecasting
          - appropriate
          - organization
          - co-ordination [as structure]
       Planning
          - order
          - command
          - control       [as structure vs actual]
 
       Complexity.

       The management tasks involved in efficiently and
    effectively utilizing $60 billion to $70 billion
    annually...are enormously complex.  (170 vii)
       Thus enter strategic planning, but the direction was

 in error.

       Strategic planning.

       In strategic planning - deciding what should be done -
    the manager must select, from the myriad of available
    alternatives in each decision situation, one that will be
    good for his organization.  (170 vii)
 
       The modern analytical approach to the strategic
    planning aspect of management is most often termed
    systems analysis.  In the execution process...project
    management (systems management, program management,
    product management...).  (170 viii)
 
       Administrative skill cannot be bought.  It has to be
    paid for...in hard study and harder thinking, mastery of
    intellectual principles reinforced by genuine reflection
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 290                                   Scholar

    on actual problems, for which the individual has real
    responsibility.  All books can do is to help towards a
    first understanding of some of the principles.  (169 15)
       Note that time, specifically whole hours, has been
 ignored.  Work takes time, including hard thinking which
 also takes time.  Theory W funnels whole hours into the

 effectiveness wanted by the organization.
       Thus this dissertation concludes the general
 literature search for ideas associated with the names of
 scholars.  Those ideas define the wisdom about the
 dissertation topic proposed in appendix A, delimiting to OD,

 not other approaches (114 392).

       OF vs OD.

       Organization Functionality (OF) can be seen as this
 dissertation's OD (Organization Development) scheme,
 contrasted with the Exxon and U.S.Postal OIP soft
 approaches, and the U.S.Army's OEP project approach.

       In the light of the earlier association of OD with
    behavioral or soft approaches, organizations such as
    Exxon and the U.S.Postal Service refer to their
    system-wide efforts as the Organizational Improvement
    Process (OIP), and that the U.S.Army refers to its
    efforts as the Organization Effectiveness Program (OEP).
    (114 247-8)

       Attention now turns to the hard specifics of OF.

 Matrix

       Evidence of the effectiveness of matrix structures is
    on the whole rather hard to find.  (147 110)
 
       Yet matrix organization has widespread applications -
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 291                                   Scholar

        Applications to research and development,
    manufacturing, construction, distribution, transport,
    communications, broadcasting, insurance, banking, higher
    education, local government, health service, and the
    military.  (147 17-21,82-90)
       Thus any serious contribution to organization
 knowledge must be, at least, equally universal.  And proven

 to be so via hard evidence.

       Matrix purpose?
       Obviously projects are the purpose of the matrix
 structure.  Yet matrix literature demands a total sense of

 organization purpose.

       The top man's job becomes less about making business
    decisions, and more about making decisions about how
    decisions should be made.  There has to be a well
    developed sense of purpose and direction in the matrix as
    a whole...  (148 54-5)
 
       Increased complexity.
 
       The people who work within a matrix are subjected to a
    considerable increase in uncertainty and ambiguity
    because they have to hold multiple jobs and multiple
    responsibilities compared with a more traditional
    organization.  There is a quest for simplicity.  There is
    a quest for identity.  (148 54)
 
       Organization misdefined.
 
       Organization structures are arrangements for getting
    work done by groups of people.  (147 112)
 
       To the contrary, only individuals do work.
 
       Work structure.
 
       Criteria of structural effectiveness...[1] straight
    efficiency or level of resource utilization...[2]
    establishment of better control over the resource
    utilization...[3] separating accountability for this from
    the parallel accountability for achieving project
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 292                                   Scholar

    objectives...[4] co-ordinating the separate contributions
    of diverse specialists to the achievement of common
    goals...[5] adaption to a changing environment...
    (147 113)
       Productive synergism. Synergism of organizations has
 been described by the mathmatical models of 1+1=3 or 2+2=5.
 These measures of synergism can be reconciled with the above
 model of productivity - 3:2=150% and 5:4=125% as
 measurements of productivity.  The 1+1=3 scenario being 25
 points more productive than the 2+2=5 scenario.  Now on to
 the particulars of organization output and organization
 input as the elements of organization productivity.
       The analysis of productivity can be reduced to the
 analysis of a mathmatical model.  The model presents
 productivity as the simple ratio of output compared to
 input.  Applying the concept of productivity to the
 organization results in the concept of synergism.
       Org output/input. Every organization has output - a
 product, inclusive of services.  For examples, General
 Motors has automobiles as its product, and an individual as
 an organization has good feelings as its outcome.  General
 Motors has parts, services, and labor as inputs to its
 organization, and the individual inputs time into its
 organization.  Thus if productivity has the definition of
 output divided by input, all organization can measure their
 overall productivity.
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 293                                   Scholar
       DeZurik, in the 1970s, stressed the ratio of sales
 dollars per employee to measure organization productivity.
 For time series analysis, sales dollar inflation would
 require accounting analysis.  And the number of employees
 would require adjustment to full-time employees.  The
 calculation of the number of full-time employees usually
 involves the number of payroll hours and a standard
 full-time workweek, usually 40 hours per week.  Thus an
 apparently simple overall productivity ratio requires
 considerable accounting effort.
       Individual productivity usually brings to mind
 government statistical measurement - however inadequate for
 use in a specific organization.  Thus when dealing with a
 specific organization there usually exists the input of
 direct labor or the input of indirect labor of services as
 observed in the General Motors and DeZurik examples above.
 Hours of time can also apply to the individual as an
 organization - using 168 hours per week as the input of
 maximum validity.
       The individual organization however, poses a definite
 measurement difficulty.  As stated in scientific psychology,
 the individual self has good feelings as output.  Actions
 composed of time-on-task give rise to the good feelings.
 And although all 168 hours per week supports the good
 feeling associated with Maslow's actualization and
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 294                                   Scholar
 Alderfer's growth, a certain number of hours can be
 identified as directly supporting good feelings.  For
 example, good feelings are not directly supported by sleep
 time.  Rather, sleep time acts as an input for other work

 which in turn produces good feelings.43
       Another way to measure individual productivity would
 be to identify a psychological construct, provide a
 standardized test, establish a standardized norm at 100%,
 and thus measure individual productivity.  This way would
 hardly be universally practical.  To the contrary, whole
 hours are universally understood - but not tracked and
 analyzed.
       Thus the measurement of matrix organized activities
 and the measurement of individual productivity falls back to
 the measurement of whole hours.
       Current educational output provides the tools to
 measure the whole hours of the individual organization.
 However, too few professors of science and art - liberal or
 otherwise - practice the measurement of readily available
 time-on-task whole hours, for themselves or their students.
 Thus there remains difficulty in measuring the efficiency of

 ____________________
 
       43 In the case of the author's self-study, sleep
 time and non-growth relatedness time were at one time not
 counted as being directly productive for the individual
 organization.
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 295                                   Scholar
 the matrix organization.

       Efficiency.

       Efficiency is a narrower concept than overall
    effectiveness.  It refers specifically to the ratio of
    outputs to inputs which is the economist's definition of
    efficiency.  Control is...the ability to set objectives,
    the ability to monitor their achievement, and the ability
    to take corrective action where necessary.  The ability
    to hold people accountable for a defined task areas and
    the achievement of specified goals is not just a way of
    keeping them in line, but constitutes a powerful means of
    motivating them to exercise discretion [choice]
    constructively and creatively.  All organizations get
    work done by some form of division of labor, [thus] they
    have to have means of integrating the efforts of groups
    and individuals towards composite goals.  Respond
    adaptively to new and changing demands, from clients,
    providers of finance, employees and the labor market they
    come from, the community and society at large.  As well
    as being a machine for performing work, an organization
    is a social system.  This means that it must be able to
    satisfy its members' needs sufficiently to enlist their
    commitment to the organization, and it must structure
    roles and relationships so as to facilitate co-operation
    and minimize harmful conflict between members.
    (147 114-5)
 
       Work accountability.
 
       The traditional organization chart, with its set of
    positions joined by lines, carries clear implications
    about authority and accountability relationships which
    are well understood by the people involved.  They
    realize, of course, that life is not as simple as the
    chart makes out, but that does not invalidate it; the
    chart is the skeleton of accountability which is given
    flesh by a host of subsidiary relationships.  The job
    descriptions which often supplement such a chart tend to
    be much more peripheral to the work being done; they are
    needed for administrative purposes like selection,
    training, or job evaluation, but it is unusual for them
    to be closely studied by the job holders themselves,
    except when they are feeling defensive or bloodly minded.
    (147 172)
 
       Work tasks.
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 296                                   Scholar

        Systematic ways of monitoring and controlling
    performance are an essential part of the management
    process.  Indeed for matrix organizations the need may be
    all the greater.  Yet, on so many occasions, the
    seemingly obvious need for appropriate information
    systems is not given the emphasis that it deserves, and
    the matrix structures are left to exist along-side
    information and control systems oriented towards a
    previous functional management structure.  (149 195)
 
       Weekly formality.
 
       Most of us operate very happily as members of a series
    of different groups - family, club, working group,
    neighborhood, and so forth.  We switch with great ease
    from one role to another.  Perhaps we have simply learnt
    to cope better with the long-established boundary roles,
    such as salesman, foreman, or specialist advisers, than
    with the newer ones created by matrix organizations.
    Psychological research suggests that behavior under
    conditions of threat and crisis is very much more limited
    and stereotyped than in a supportive and secure
    environment.  The same people who are capable of
    risk-taking and versatility in a relaxed and stimulation
    environment may become rigid and unco-operative in an
    atmosphere of restriction and fault-finding.  (147 215)

 OF over matrix
       Theory W proposes to provide the environment of
 functional task knowledge so that the organization may
 better attain chosen goals.

       Proposition.

       n.1.a proposing, 2.a proposal; a plan, 3.a setting
    forth; an offering, 4.a project; a business undertaking,
    5.a person, problem, undertaking...to be dealt with, 6.in
    logic, an expression in which the predicate affirms or
    denies something about the subject, 7.in mathmatics, a
    theorem to be demonstrated or a problem to be solved,
    8.in rhetoric, a subject to be discussed or a statement
    to be upheld.  J.L.McKechnie (1983) Webster's new
    universal unabridged dictionary.  New York: Simon &
    Schuster.
       Use of the word better addresses both the quality and
 

 
 
 
 
 
 Theory W  page 297                                   Scholar
 quantity of life.  Theory W seeks to improve measurable
 productivity by unformalizing the formal functional
 organization - computerizing the functions of strategy and
 tactics.
       Functions are work tasks in the form of action,
 specifically a set consisting of a verb, a descriptor, and a
 noun.
       Theory W grows from English composition reporter
 questions, but more basic is the child's question of why -
 THE strategy question.  Then follows the tactical question
 of way.  Many other w words provoke the functional
 representation of an organization separate from the formal
 and informal.
       The functional structure of the Theory W organization
 is a precedence network database - each functional work task
 being a verb-descriptor-noun.
       To functionalize is to organize into units performing
 specialized tasks.  Work units are individuals.
 Specialization provides domain.  Performance demands
 evaluation via personal control.
       Thesaurus (55) words for improve - train, perfect, get
 better, better, recuperate, recover, and to improve one's
 mind.  Thesaurus words for develop - mature, generate,

 enlarge, grow, evolve, display, disclose, train, expatiate.