Under the "iron chancellor," Otto von Bismarck, Germany grew from a weak confederation of states to a powerful empire. For most of the last half of the 19th century, Bismarck's policies controlled the destinies of most of the countries of Europe. Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schonhausen was born on April 1, 1815, at Schonhausen, a family estate in Prussia. He studied law at universities in Gottingen and Berlin, then entered the Prussian civil service. After leaving the service he helped manage the family estates. He entered politics in 1847. At the time the German states were organized in a loose confederation. Bismarck was determined to free the states from Austrian domination and to unite them under Prussian rule. He first served as a representative at the assembly of the German Confederation and as ambassador to Russia and France. In 1862 he was appointed minister-president of Prussia. In 1864 Prussia allied with Austria to provoke war with Denmark. The victorious allies won the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, but two years later quarrels over the duchies led to war between Prussia and Austria. The defeat of Austria gave Prussia control over the states north of the Main River. Bismarck formed them into the North German Confederation. Relations between Prussia and its age-old enemy France then became tense. In 1870 the nomination of a Hohenzollern prince to the vacant Spanish throne was withdrawn upon French demand. When the French ambassador asked King William I of Prussia to promise that the nomination would never be renewed, the king dismissed the ambassador. France then declared war on Prussia, and the Prussian army, with the armies of the other German states, attacked and defeated the disorganized French (see Franco-Prussian War). The German states were then united, and William I became kaiser, or emperor, of the new German Empire. Bismarck, raised to the rank of prince, became chancellor. During Bismarck's chancellorship, Germany established colonies in Africa and in the Pacific and built up its industries. William I was succeeded in 1888 by his son Frederick III, a sick man who ruled only three months. Frederick's son became Kaiser William II. Because William II wanted sole power, he forced Bismarck to resign in 1890. Bismarck retired to his estate at Friedrichsruh, where he died on July 30, 1898.
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