Naga is a generic term which comprises various Mongoloid tribes with marked strains of caucasic influences. Linguistically, they belong to the Bodo-Naga group of Assam-Burmese sub-family classified under the Tibeto-Burmese family of the Sino-Tibetan super family. The Nagas have complex linguistic diversity. Each tribes has one or more dialects which are unintelligible to the next tribe. Let alone the Tangkhul Nagas where every village has a different dialect. It will also be interesting to recapitulate what Hutton had said about the Sema dialectic diversity. I quote: "There is a Sema jest which aptly illustrates the differences of vocabulary from village to village. Seven men of different villages happened to meet by the road one evening. They asked one another what they had got with them to eat with their rice. Each mentioned a different thing atusheh, gwomishi, mugushi, amuna, akello, etc. including, as some understood it, dried fish, meat and various kinds of vegetables. They agreed to pool their good things and share alike and sat down prepared for a feast, each one thinking how he had scored by agreeing to share with his neighbours. When they opened their loads, they all produced chillies". Some sort of these types are prevalent in most of the Naga dialectic world.
Many theories have been put forward by historians, geographers, anthropologists and other scholars on the origin and meaning of the world "Naga". But no solution has been possible till today. To comprehend the etimon and its probable derivation, we need to review the various postulations available today. In the ancient Sanskrit literatures, references are made to the Kiratas. S.K Chatterji and other Scholars opined that 'Kirata' is nothing but 'Indo-Mongoloid'. If this is justified, then Naga is likely to be a derivation from the Sanskrit word 'Naga' (meaning serpant) or 'Ng' (meaning hill/mountain). J.P Mills (1922) was of the opinion that "Naga is a corruption of the Assamese Naga (Pronounce 'Noga') probably meaning 'a mountaineer' from Sanskrit Nag, 'a mountain' or 'inaccessible place'. It is rather vaque to believe that 'Naga' is a synonym of 'snake' where 'snake' worship is not found among the Nagas.
Ptolemy (150 A.D) in his Geographia mentions 'Nagalogae' who are supposed to live in Eastern India. Some scholars like P.C Choudhury and others would identify the 'Nangalogae' with the Naga. In Sanskrit, Nangalogae would mean 'the realm of the naked' (Nanga, Naked; loga, people). To William Robinson (1841), "The origin of the work Naga is unknown; but it has been supposed to have been derived from the Sanskrit word (Nanga) and applied in derision to the people from the paucity of their clothing; but there seems little foundation for this etymological derivation as the Khasi as or Garos, with whom they were far better acquianted than with the Nagas; and besides, the Garos especially are habitually accustomed to a greater degree of nudity than any of the Naga tribes with whom we are acquiated". While yet, Nanga theory was being supported by few scholars like J.H Hutton, H.B Rowney, Christoph Von Furer-Haimendorf, M. Alemchiba among others.
In the later half of the 19th century, one S.E.Peal propounded a theory which traces its (Naga) derivation from 'Nok' meaning man or folk as in some of the Tibeto-Burman languages like those of the Ao, Nocte, Garos, etc. This theory seems to be more convincing than its predecessors and it was welcomed by scholars like Holcombe, E.A. Gait, Verrier Elwin, M.Horam among others. Elwin (1961) opined: "The most likely derivation to my mind is that which traces 'Naga' from the word 'Nok' or people which is its meaning in a few Tibeto-Burman languages… It is common through out India for tribesmen to call themselves by words meaning 'man' as attractive habit which suggest that they look on themselves simple as people free from communal or caste association". Although, this theory is not free from technical weakness, I feel it is the most probable derivation.
Certainly, there are theories proposed by the Naga writes which appeared particularly in the second half of the present century. A few Naga scholars including Prof. Gangmumei Kabui (1993) are of the opinion that the word 'Naga' was derived from the Kachari word Nok or Nokhar meaning warrior or fighters as the Kacharis came into violent conflict with Naga tribes like Angamis and Zeliangrong" R.R. Shmray (1985) believed that the word Naga derives from the Burmess 'Naka' meaning pierced ears.
Dr. M.Horam (1975) had also brought out the probable derivation of the word 'Naga' from 'Naokhoka' meaning a very brave child in Tangkhul dialect. He writes that Naokhoka left his weary brother in the Manipur valley in the course of their migration from the east and first came into contact with the Ahoms. The Ahoms called 'Naokhas' (offspring of Naokhoka) 'Noga' and later the term Naga came into use. There is also one proposition by Rev. H Visor (1988) that the term 'Naga' comes from Konyak dialect meaning 'man'. He further gives another possibility from the Konyak word 'Naga' or 'Naka' meaning 'hole in the ear' ('na', ear, 'ka', hole).
According to another story, from an aged man of the Ao tribe, the Nagas once had their own script which was written on a piece of animal skin. One day a dog got hold of the Precious piece of skin and began chewing it. A man from the plains saw this and began to shout 'Nakhapi' or 'Nakhao' meaning 'don't eat'. The dog nevertheless, destroyed the skin and from that day the people of these hilly tracts were called 'Nokha', then 'Noga' and later 'Nagas'. An almost similar story is current among the Tangkhul Nagas (Horam 1975:27).
Now we have at our disposal several theories, opinions or stories discussed in an attempt to trace the probable derivation of the etymon 'Naga'. It is rather difficult to give the correct derivation of the term when there are no living witness or any recored evidence to this effect. The solution has become more complicated when there are too many probabilities proposed by both the Non-Naga and Nagas scholars. Although, the ethmological derivation of 'Naga' is still obscure and subject to further research, I am (as mentioned earlier elsewhere) most convinced with the 'Nok' theory proposed by S.E. Peal followed by E.A.Gait, Sir George A. Grieson, Verrier Elwin, Gr M.Horam among others as it commands the most probable proposition despite its limitations.
The question 'who are Nagas?' is one problem and What criteria (ethnic, socio-culture, geographical, political, biological, etc.) is used to identify a Naga differentiating from the neighbouring mongoloids?' is quite another problem. We shall try to answer these questions by taking into accounts several perspectives. J.P .mills (1922) writes in this connection:" It is generally assumed in a vague short of way that those tribes which are spoken of as Nagas have something in common with each other which distinguishes them from the many other tribes found in Assam and entitles them to be regarded as a racial unit in themselves…. The truth is that if not impossible it is exceeding difficult to propound any test by which a Naga can be distinguished from other Assam (viz., north-east Indian Mongoloid tribes) or Burma tribes which are not Nagas". Despite such view, by and large, the Nagas themselves find no difficulty in identifying who their sister Naga tribes are. What is more fascinating is the strong 'We' feeling among the Nags themselves especially when in opposition with the outsiders (Non-Nagas) even when there are internal crises among them.
In his 'The Ao Naga tribe of Assam' W.C.Smith (1925) gives several characteristics of the Nagas distinguishing from their neighbours. They are:
"Head hunting; common sleeping-houses for the unmarried men, which are taboo to women; dwelling houses build on posts or piles; disposal of dead on raised platforms; a sort of trial marriage, or great freedom of intercourse between the sexes before the marriage; betel chewing; aversion to milk as an article of diet; tattooing by pricking; absence of any powerful political organisation; the double-cylinder verticle forge; the sinple loom of weaving cloth; a large quadrangular or hexagonal shield; residence in hilly regions and a crude form of agriculture"
Smith, however, cautioned that these cultural traits do not uniformly occur in all the Naga tribes even though there is no doubt that in the remote past, they came from the same stock. Though most of these characteristics may be true in the past, it can not be held correct in the contemporary context. The Nagas' diversified way of life have tremendously changed in a few decades coupled with political inconsistencies that the characterisation of whether or not one is a Naga becomes more complicated. When we go through the declaration of the Naga Students' Federation trying to give a common identity of all the Nagas, we read that "Nagas belong to one single race (mongoloid) with a common interest and goal". This identifying criteria is rather psychological than anything else for when one talks of a race (mongoloid) it is too stock. However, it is also felt as one functional approach helpful to the Nagas themselves for the solution of the complex Naga common identity problem. Accordingly, to identify a Naga one should not forget that it should be an integrated approach taking into accounts the biological (racial), socio-cultural, historical and political factors among others.
If there are remarkable resemblances among the Naga tribes, there are also marked differences. This could have been due to historical and environmental (social and physical) processes and adaptations (influences) in the ever evolving and changing society where Nagas are no exception.
In socio-cultural-political milieu, we have many commonalties heard or seen among the Nagas along with what were mentioned above I shall mention some of the outstanding characteristics which is of course by no means complete. It is equally important to note that the following features also to be almost all the neighbouring Mongoloid people in one way or the other.
The Nagas have some sort of government based by and large on democratic principles which are republic (except for few tribes, the tribes has a chief who is the head of the village. In most of the tribes, the chief is hereditary. Nagas are patrilineal and patriarchal society. They are basically classless and casteless but egalitarian in structure. Some kind of communism was prevalent and this makes some people feel that the Nagas had a proto mode of socialism. Traditional laws were the yardstick of any code of conduct. Theft was unknown to them. Crime was stringently attended to. Although, modern laws have great impact on the Naga country in a less vehement, more or less modified and refined form to cater the necessities of day-to-day situation. If the Nagas are famous for head hunting tradition, they are also well known to the world for honesty, loyalty and sincerity in their walks of life. A little provocation would be mended by the attitude 'who wins' which courses are usually wild and revengeful. Twisting or deceiving of commitments and actions are rarely reported.
The Nagas were quite self-reliant people. This was true in the context of the village for every village was widely practiced. It would not be wrong when Shimmi (1988:19) writes that "Paddy was their (Nagas) medium of exchange. There were other articles like sesamum, yam, millet, chilly, marine-shell, bead, salt cake, wooden plate, earthen pot, loomed cloth and cutlery which served the purpose of currency to some extent". The Nagas are fond of cowries and conch shells as ornaments. Spear, dao, bow and arrow are predominantly used by them for domestic, agriculture, hunting, warfare purpose inter alia. Dignity of labour is highly valued. Should a person neglect at work, he or she is shunned or not respected by the community. This is because, the Nagas have deeprooted attachment to the value of action orieneted way of living. Begging is an abomination in Naga society. The Nagas have the attitude that he lives with the sweat of his brow.
The Nagas love to occupy open hill sites which helped them in successful warfare, keeping away from mosquitoes and ferocious animals, water-borne diseases, etc. and for psychological areal sight satisfaction. A new site, be it village, agriculture, etc. when proposed for settlement or cultivation are preceded by rituals for omen. The emotional attachment of the Nagas for their ancestral village or place is immense. It is due to the fact that they rarely shift their village site from the once set up even if the natural resources near and around the village is exhausted. They would rather walk for miles than change their settlement. This is quite opposite to the attitude of the neighbouring Kuki tribes. A Kuki tribal is regarded by the villagers as a successful and efficient man if he could migrate or shift the village settlement maximum in a year or years which is counted as life achievement.
The Nagas are closely associated with the mother earth. Festivals are testimony to this truth. The Nagas live with songs and dances. 'Feast of Merit' (called 'Maram' in Tangkhul) is another customary practice. They are carried out from time to time in the level of the village (rarely of groups of villages). This festival is drawn by rich people for the villagers with some sense of sharing of goods which he had accumulated during his life successful and in return , the feast drawer is revered by the villagers as a generous and a capable man. In principle, such practice has similarities with 'Potlatch' of the Kwakiutls. Indigenous wine (zam) was at one time inseparable asset of the Nagas which was considered as something more than the usual item taken as nutritious food. It was an important component of their culture itself. It is also said that heavy consumption of 'zam' does not hamper their loyalty to elders and or villagers. With the coming of Christianity, such consumption of wine have become a thing of the past except foe few cases.
The Nagas are well known for honesty and modesty. They are straightforward in approach. Truth and justice are highly esteemed. To avail justice people do not necessarily go through lengthy legal processes. There are village authorities to settle cases through customary laws whereby justice is given to the deserved while penalties are awarded to the guilty in accordance with the nature of the crime/case. There are times where contenders of justice have to undergo certain physical acts swearing in the name of God. It is believed that the guilty is punished by God dually in time. A is also a gentleman. Sir. William Slim (Field Marshall of British-India) during World War II in his "Defeat into Victory" had also recorded his experience of the Nagas, especially, of the gallantry and loyalty extended to the British against the Japanese armies in the World War II.
There are also material (physical) cultures which have common features among the Nagas tribes. We find megaliths among the Nagas as commemorative monuments or ritualistic events like those connected with burials primarily and also after achievements - "Feast of Merit", gallant and successful warrior or head-hunters, etc. Wood platter (plate) is an identifiable culture element of the Nagas. We also observe head gear (dress) being used by all the Naga tribes with little variations from each other. Pierced ear is a prominent common feature among the Nagas. Nagas being agriculturists and semi-pastoralists, land owning has an important place in their lives. They have village and or communal (clan wise, lineage wise, etc) and private (individual) land holding systems. In Naga country, one finds that there is no land having no owner, be it inter or intra village(s). However, most of these rich cultures of the Nagas mentioned in the afore paragraphs among others are fast eroding due to modernisation.
