Mankind originally lived outdoors, taking shelter and protection from the elements and predators in natural refuges such as caves and rock overhangs. Gradually, they learned to improve their caves with inlaid stone floors, walls at the entrances and fireplaces. In places where suitable building stone was available stone could be utilized. At times even the doors of homes were made of stone, swung on morticed pivots, and were generally fastened by wooden bolts. The craft of the stonemason has existed since the dawn of civilization - creating buildings, structures and sculpture using stone from the ground. These materials have been used to construct some of the most long-lasting, ancient monuments, artifacts, cathedrals and cities in a wide variety of cultures. Masons used stone tools such as hammerstones which were partially superseded by copper and later bronze saws, drills and chisels, and during the Late Period by iron implements.
EARLY STONE MASONS IN BRITAIN & EUROPE
The term "mason" comes from the French language and means a "builder of walls" or "a stone-cutter". In the three centuries between 1050 and 1350 several million tons of stone were quarried in France alone to build eighty cathedrals, five hundred large churches and some tens of thousands of parish churches. Although the mason's annual wage was less than that of a stonecutter, who was employed all the year round, his wage by the day was about the same.
In the Middle Ages the three main sources of energy were water, wind and the horse, with hydraulic power as essential to economic life as oil is to us today. The development of the water mill during the early Middle Ages resulted partly from the broader network of regularly flowing rivers and streams to be found in the northern regions, and partly, in the tenth century, from a vastly increased population. The water mill was known in Asia Minor in the first century BC, but for climatic and hydrological reasons it was not developed around the Mediterranean basin - the heart of classical civilisation. The mills at Barbegal in Provence, which cost so much to operate, demonstrate the difficulties which confronted the Romans in their attempts to utilise water power. Yet in 1086 William the Conqueror recorded 5624 water mills in England. By the thirteenth century there were some tens of thousands in France. Enormous works were undertaken in the towns to dig diversion channels for these mills. In the countryside all the rivers were used. The advantage of this sources of energy was that it could be found everywhere.
More stone was excavated in those three hundred centuries between 1050 and 1350 than at any time in Ancient Egypt (recall that the volume of the Great Pyramid is 2.5 million cubic metres). Foundations were often more than ten metres deep and in some cases there is as much stone below ground as above. The architects of the Gothic cathedrals, like Amiens, knew how to build their great churches so that the tallest parts could stand up to winds of around 90mph.
MEDIEVAL STONE CUTTERS
In the Middle Ages, there was a church or chapel for every two hundred inhabitants. For example in Norwich, Lincoln and York - cities were populations between 5000 and 10,000 - there were respectively 50, 49 and 41 churches and chapels. Some 9000 parish churches, abbeys, monastries and cathedrals were built in England during the Middle Ages. Stonecutters or masons during the medieval era, were not specifically training for the job. Stonecutters would cut stone slabs into blocks that were transportable, master sculpture that was based on an image. This masterpiece would determine if they required more training or they were in the guild and could start a business again. In the picture to the lower right, two stonecutters are placing stone blocks on a building top. In the picture to the top left, a group of stonecutters are placing stones into a wall.
The average stonecutters traveled frequently working on large-scale jobs, such as castles, cathedrals and other buildings. Whole crews of masons and stonecutters were hired at one time, but when there was insufficient money to pay them with, the stonecutters would move on to the next job until that project was no longer funded.
ANCIENT STONE MASONS GUILDS
The stonecutters and masons were part of a basically itinerant population of workmen. There were many reasons for them to move from site to site and from country to country. The younger men wanted to seek new horizons, to learn a new way of life and different techniques.
Also, masons were given certain privileges. The overseer provided them with gloves to protect their hands from burning by lime; they were given a bonus when they completed something or when the keystone was placed in position. Some of the better-off masons were employed to supervise small sites.
There are still extant records of some of the Guilds which existed from the beginning of the 11th century England. They appear to have been of a Social-Religious character, similar to many of a later date, and to have had for their chief objects the salvation of the soul, psalm singing, feasting, processions to the grave, and other common responsibilities. Members were admitted to the guild by a solemn oath. They contributed to a benovelence fund for mutual assistance in distress. When proven to have been guilty of neglect of duty and for misconduct, they were fined. All these are objects that would be very likely to bring people together with a common sympathy for self-preservation and protection of each other's trades on the one hand, and for social on the other.
MAYAN STONE STRUCTURES
Mayan built structures. It is known as El Caracol or The Observatory. The word "caracol" is Spanish for conch and the building earns it's name by the winding stairways in it's interior. In fact, the building is a planetarium with windows set to view particular celestial bodies.
A surprising aspect of the great Maya structures is their lack of many advanced technologies that would seem to be necessary for such constructions. Lacking metal tools, pulleys and maybe even the wheel, Maya architecture required one thing in abundance: manpower. Yet, beyond this enormous requirement, the remaining materials seem to have been readily available. All stone for Maya structures appears to have been taken from local quarries. They most often utilized limestone, which remained pliable enough to be worked with stone tools while being quarried, and only hardened once removed from its bed. In addition to the structural use of limestone, much of their mortar consisted of crushed, burnt, and mixed limestone that mimicked the properties of cement and was used just as widely for stucco finishing as it was for mortar.
STONE WARRIORS
In the Xianyang Terracotta Museum you could see 3000 painted terracotta warriors and horses from the western Han. The last stop of the day we'll go to the Famen Temple, founded 2000 years ago in the Han dynasty.
The terra cotta warriors were ally discovered by Chinese peasants while digging a well. This discovery prompted archaeologists to proceed to Shaanxi, China to investigate. No one knows why this site became buried and lost among memories in the clay and in the minds of China. What they found was the ancient burial-site of the first Chinese Emperor Qin Shihuangdi. These warriors were placed all around the burial tomb of Emperor Qin. Before Qin, masters were buried with women, slaves, and soldiers. This tradition during China's feudal period vanished during the life of Qin. To substitute for the actual humans, Qin ordered a massive clay army to be produced for his protection. Qin wanted the afterlife to be the same as his life on earth. Qin produced a warlike culture in China, which brought him many enemies. During his lifetime there were three attempts to assassinate him, so he had to be protected in the afterlife.
Today, the abundance of colors, textures, and natural variations found in stone provide an endless supply of design possibilities. Bringing natural materials into your home provides aesthetic, artistic, and stylistic expression you will long enjoy. Stone is practical, attractive and retains or increases it's value through the years. Today, natural stone such as marble and granite comes from quarries throughout the world. Your choice of a durable stone for your home or business is an investment, that will remain beautiful for years to come.
THE QUARRYING OF NATURAL STONE TODAY
Most architectural stone today is quarried from caverns within the hearts of the mountains, and hillsides of this world. A quarry is a type of open-pit mine from which rock or minerals are extracted. Quarries are generally used for extracting building materials, such as dimension stone. Quarries are usually shallower than other types of open-pit mines. The natural stone is transported in blocks from the quarry by truck to the processing facility where it is sawn into slabs and polished. To obtain granite from a quarry either digging, cutting or blasting process is used. This process of obtaining the stone is called quarrying. Once quarrying is done, the processing of granite starts. The four operations that are involved in the processing of granite are:
Dressing
OUR STONE FABRICATION SERVICES
Once the fabrication of your natural stone is complete, we will deliver and install it. The surface shine can be expected to last approximately 2 1/2 years. This will wear away with normal use and require periodical cleansing, or resurfacing, due to acidic spills such as juices which stain or etch the surface of your natural stone.
- Our stone fabrication and installation business has been located in the the Bellevue/Seattle area of Washington state for 29 years. My 29 years of experience in the natural stone trade, includes teaching union apprentices for 3 1/2 years. The training was sponsored by the Local #2, at South Seattle Community College. You can contact us by email at adazio@lycos.com or by telephone at 425 883 2303.
Our stone fabrication services
can be broken down into the following 6 categories
- 1) Design Review & Consultation
You determine the design you would like to have fabricated in natural stone by looking through decorating magazines, drawings, or architectural renderings. The images you submit to me will then be reviewed.
- 2) The Design Is Determined.
We will review the photographs or drawings which you have chosen. Shop drawings are usually required, just like a blue print is required in the process for the completion of final production in other fields.
- 3) The Selection & Obtaining Of Your Materials.
You will select your natural stone, from a local stoneyard. Your selection of materials will include consultation at the place where you buy your stone regarding shade variations in the stone, natural striations, oiling of slabs by the industry, and how this affects your stone. You can enquire regarding laminations for increased thickness or greater strength in necessary areas, pin holes or natural veins found in the stone, and how we deal with these in the fabrication of your material. I can offer you design advice if you need assistance. Feel free to give us a call in the Redmond, Washington area at (425) 883-2303.
I recommend, or a choice of your own. Buyers frequently ask if calcereous stones such as marble, limestone, travertine, or onyx are porous, and vulnerable to staining from food spills, or cosmetics. Porosity implies that there is space between the crystal formations in the stone, where water can penetrate. The finish put on stone doesn't affect it's porosity.
All stones are vulnerable to scratching. Most people accept this as part of natural use, or have the polish removed for a natural "honed appearance."
When you have chosen the stone material you'd like to have installed in your home or office, the material will be obtained and delivered to where it will be fabricated to custom specifications. The schedule is then determined. As your natural stone fabricator, I will lay out your job in a way that will maximize the natural beauty of the veining pattern. Your custom stone work then goes directly from our facility to your home or business.
- 4) Templating:
Using the template, we will cut the stone and prepare it.
- 5) Delivery & Installation
6) Sealing, maintenance, & restoration work.
Your stone work is an investment. You can contact me to schedule the cleaning, sealing, and general maintenance of your marble, granite or other stone, to keep it looking it's optimum best.
From my 29 years of experience with various phases of the stone trade, I can assist you with every step of the process, from selecting the appropriate stone material based on your decorating need, to explaining various aspects of the various types of stones which you should be aware of in making your final selection.
This includes:
Stone Finishes include:
A flat to low sheen gloss. Honing is the process of smoothing the stone with the use of abrasives and water or chemicals. Although not as aggressive as grinding, it does require the use of water or specialized chemicals which are best used in the hands of skilled professionals trained to use them. Honing is performed to remove scratches, and will not remove lippage (uneven tiles). It can, however, round the edges of the stone, giving a smoother finish to the edge. The honing process can be achieved with the use of diamond abrasives, although some contractors prefer silicon-carbide bricks or screens. Which abrasive is used is not as important as the skill level of the craftsmen. Honing can leave a stone floor with very little shine, although some stones will acquire a satin-like appearance at very high hones.
Different levels of gloss can be selected. This surface is smooth, but often is very porous. This texture is common in high traffic buildings. Honed stone colors are not as vibrant as polished stone. The polishing process is halted before a reflective shiny surface is achieved, giving a matte finish to the stone. The satin surface produces relatively little light reflection. Generally, a honed finish is preferred for floors, stair treads, thresholds and other locations where the presence of water might make a polished finish slippery or where severe traffic would wear off the polished finish. Different levels of gloss can be selected. Maintenance - Seal, Dry Mop, Wet Mop, Wax.
The flamed surface is achieved by applying blow-torch strength heat to the surface of the stone. This causes the surface to melt, and some of the crystals to shatter, leaving a highly textured surface which is ideal for exterior paving, or wet areas requiring optimum non-slipperiness. Maintenance - Seal, Dry Mop, Wet Mop.
The glossy surface wears away with time due to heavy foot traffic and using improper maintenance procedures. This surface is very smooth and not very porous. The reflectivity of polished crystal brings out the brilliant colours and grains of natural stone. The shine comes from the natural reflection of the stone's crystals and is not from an artificial coating. To maintain this, we recommend resurfacing every 3 years. Or if you find that you need a stone doctor, to repair an already existing countertop or or you've purchased an antique vanity top with a chip or a blemish which you feel is a detriment and does not add to the aestetic value, but you are fond of the piece, simply give us a call, and we'll make your stone look like new. Maintenance - Seal, Dry Mop, Wet Mop, Wax
- A slightly rough texture that is achieved by tumbling small pieces of marble, limestone and sometimes granite to achieve a worn appearance.
- This surface is the result of a pressurized flow of sand and water that provides a glossy texture.
- A coarsely polished finish achieved by using a gang saw.
The difference between "honed" and "polished" granite.
"Honed" or "polished" refers to the type of finish on a slab of marble or granite. The finish of honed marble or granite will range from a flat to a low sheen gloss, which gives the stone a softer look. Polished granite refers to the glossy, highly reflective appearance, giving it a smooth, sleek look.
Rock is a hard substance composed of various minerals. The most common are those combinations of minerals forming the earth's crust. Eight elements, alone or in combination; make up 100 common minerals, but less than 20 are widely distributed in the earths crust. Quartz, Calcite, Feldspars, Micas, Augite, and Hematite make up all rocks.
Marble is what happens to fairly pure limestone after metamorphism. Heat and pressure cause the grains of calcite in limestone to combine into larger crystals. In this hand specimen of marble, the crystals are large. For fine marble of the sort used in buildings and sculpture, the crystals are small. The color of marble can range from the purest white to black, ranging through the warmer colors in between depending on the other mineral impurities. Marble does have the potential to burn so avoid placing curling irons, or kitchen pans directly on it.
Known for its beauty and elegance, marble is a timeless classic. Throughout the centuries, it was the material of choice for artists and architects to create magnificent sculptures, monuments, and buildings such as the Taj Mahal in India and the Greek Parthenon. Inspired by such masterpieces of antiquity, architects and designers of today use marble to add an aura of sophistication and splendor to any space.
Marbles are comprised of calcium carbonate mineral calcite, though they contain smaller amounts of other minerals which contribute to their color. Marble is recrystallized limestone that formed when the limestone softened from heat and pressure recrystallized into marble where mineral changes occurred. The main consistency is calcium and dolmite.
The color range is extensive and marble is heavily veined. Carrara, Thassos, and Bianco Rosa are considered true marbles. These paintings by artist John Singer Sargent (1856-1925) depict quarry workers in Carrara, Italy. 
Marbles often occur interbedded with such metamorphic rocks as mica schists, phyllites, gneisses, and granulites and are most common in the older layers of the Earth's crust that have been deeply buried in regions of extreme folding and igneous intrusion. The change from limestones rich in fossils into true marbles in such metamorphic regions is a common phenomenon; occasionally, as at Carrara, Italy, and at Bergen, Norway.
The Greeks had marble quarries and silver mines. In other parts of the world there were copper, lead, gold, tin, iron, and mines for precious and semi-precious stone. Slaves did almost everything except smelting. They did the dangerous job of going into the earth to bring the ore to the surface. They also did the heavy work of removing the earth to expose the ore. They wielded the pick and the hammers to drive the drills. Very dry sticks were pounded into the holes so when water was applied they swelled and broke the rock. The large rocks were broken with picks and hammers and chisels. The burden and ore was removed from the mines in sacks on the back of slaves. Slaves had to constantly sharpen the tools to work the rock.
The demand for natural stone has increased at a tremendous rate in the past 20 years. The stone industry, is a major industry of many countries around the world: Brazil, Guatemala, Italy, Greece, Indonesia, Australaia, Zimbabwe, India, Spain, Mexico, South Africa, Canada, the United States. Spain is one of the largest producers of high-quality marble. It is imported to the United States for all types of building projects, and it is a very good building material. Marble was used in the building of the temple, 1 Chr. 29:2. Pillars of, Esth. 1:6; Song 5:15. Merchandise of, Rev. 18:12. Mosaics of, Esth. 1:6.
Marble does not split easily into sheets of equal size and must be mined carefully. Blocks of marble are mined with channeling machines, which cut grooves and holes in the rock. Miners outline a block of marble with rows of grooves and holes. They then drive wedges into the openings and separate the block from the surrounding rock. The blocks are cut with saws to the desired shape and size.
Marble is classified into 3 major catagories: 1) Domite: If it has more than 40% magnesian carbonate. 2) Magnesian: If it has between 5% and 40% magnesian carbonate. 3) Calcite: If it has less than 5%.
There are 3 types of rock on the surface of the earth. 1) Sedimentary or layered rock. 2) Metamorphic or changed rock. 3) Igneous or volcanic rock. Marble is of the first 2 types. Dolomitic Marble is created from the action of limestone under pressure, heat and various minerals pass through the rock during formation. The 3 major groups of Dolomitic Rock are:
Travertine began as limestone, and with the passing of time, through geological shifting, has found its way deep in the Earth. The porous nature of limestone makes it a reservoir for liquids. Aquifers, which are the enormous underground pools of water that feed our wells and water our cities, are the remnants of ice age melting, which sank below and was absorbed by limestone. Heated by the Earth's inner core, the water rises as steam and hot pressurized water, to form hot mud baths, "Old Faithful", " Mammoth Springs", and other gizers. This rising hot water, disolves the limestone and brings with it granules from below, forming mud beds on the surface. If enough time transpires, and the mud beds cool, they will crystallize into solid stone called travertine.
Travertine is a unique stone rich with historical significance. The word travertine comes from an old Roman name for Tivoli, a town in Italy where large deposits of travertine exist. The brilliant beige stone, characterized by irregular surfaces and edges, has been a principal building material in Rome since the Roman Empire. Travertine clothed the exterior of the Colosseum and was later favored by Michelangelo for his sculptures.
Travertine is usually hard and semi-crystaline. It's frequently found to be beautifully coloured and banded as a result of the iron compounds present or other minerals. Usually a cream or reddish color. It's formed through the accumulation of calcite from geysers bursting forth from extremely hot springs of water, and underground rivers deep below the earth's surface. As the water falls and evaporates, it leaves behind the discolored limestone, which rehardens into stone. The new stone is full of gas bubbles which gives travertine it's characteristic appearance. Generally, travertine takes a higher polish than stalactite or stalagmite whose chemical composition and origin are similar. The compact crystalline variety of travertine has been used as building material since ancient Roman times.
Travertine can be cut on either a "vein" cut, which is against the bedding which reveals the bedding planes, or a "fleuri" cut, which is along the bedding plane and reveals flowery, often circular patterns. This cut is also referred to as a "crosscut" pattern.
The voids in travertine are normally filled with synthetic fillers. The fillers eliminate voids, which can become soil collectors. On occasion you will encounter a travertine floor where the filler has been omitted. This can become an extremely difficult maintenance situation. Travertine does have the potential to burn, so pans should not be set directly on your stone.
The largest building in the world constructed mainly of travertine is the Colosseum in Rome. Another notable building using travertine extensively is the Getty Center in Los Angeles, California. The travertine used in the construction was imported from Tivoli. The website of the Getty Center contains more information about the use of travertine in its construction, including some videos of travertine being quarried and cut for use. Travertine has formed 16 huge, natural dams in a valley in Croatia known as Plitvice Lakes National Park. The stone is most widely used in Italy, Greece and Turkey, Mexico.
Serpentinite is California's state rock. This 1-1/2 meter serpentinite boulder sits in a place of honor in the roof garden of the Oakland Museum of California, its polished surface gleaming blue and jade-green.
Serpentine is said to owe its name either to its serpent-like colours and patterns or from an old belief that the stones were effective protection from snake bites. The colors are predominently green and brown, with shading looks like the marks on a serpent. These seafloor rocks were kneaded by both the horizontal compression due to subduction and the horizontal elongation due to movement along the San Andreas fault system. The Franciscan Complex is what resulted, a challenging problem for generations of western geologists. Only with the advent of plate tectonics did the story of this rock become clear.
They have their origins in metamorphic alterations of peridotite and pyroxene. Serpentines may also pseudomorphously replace other magnesium silicates. Alterations may be incomplete, causing physical properties of serpentines to vary widely. Where they form a significant part of the land surface, the soil is unusually high in clay. Most serpentines are opaque to translucent, light (specific gravity between 2.2–2.9), soft (hardness 2.5–4), infusible and susceptible to acids. All are microcrystalline and massive in habit, never being found as single crystals. Colours range from white to grey, yellow to green, and brown to black, and are often splotchy or veined. Many are intergrown with other minerals, such as calcite and dolomite. Occurrence is worldwide; New Caledonia, Canada (Quebec), USA (northern California), Afghanistan, Cornwall, China, France, Norway and Italy are notable localities.
Rock composed primarily of these minerals is called serpentinite. Serpentines find use in industry for a number of purposes, such as railway ballasts, building materials, and the asbestiform types find use as thermal and electrical insulation (chrysotile asbestos). The more attractive and durable varieties (all of antigorite) are termed "noble" or "precious" serpentine and are used extensively as gems and in ornamental carvings. Often dyed, they may imitate jade. Misleading synonyms for this material include "Korean jade", "Suzhou jade", "Styrian jade", and "New jade". New Caledonian serpentine is particularly rich in nickel, and is the source of most of the world's nickel ore.
Polished slab of bowenite serpentine, a variety of antigorite. Typical cloudy patches and veining are apparent.The Mâori of New Zealand once carved beautiful objects from local serpentine, which they called tangiwai, meaning "tears". Material quarried in Afghanistan, known as sang-i-yashm, has been used for generations. It is easily carved, taking a good polish, and is said to have a pleasingly greasy feel.
The lapis atracius of the Romans, now known as verde antique or verde antico, is a serpentinite breccia popular as a decorative facing stone. In classical times it was mined at Casambala, Thessaly, Greece. Serpentinite marbles are also widely used: Green Connemara marble (or Irish green marble) from Connemara, Ireland (and many other sources), and red Rosso di Levanto marble from Italy. Use is limited to indoor settings as serpentinites do not weather well.
Onyx is formed by quartz crystals which are fused together by nature into translucent layers of stone, revealing a rainbow of colors ranging Form creamy whites, gold’s and ambers to orange, reds, browns deep greens, and grays. The natural process of heat and pressure creates a crystalline stone rich in color and pattern that reaches well below the surface to reveal a truly unparalleled inner warmth, depth and opalescence.
Onyx, like travertine, is the result of water dissolving existing limestone and re-depositing it as a new kind of stone, sometimes called sinter. In limestone caves, onyx is formed by drip water, as stalagmites and stalactites. It's a very soft stone, and somewhat brittle, and needs to be installed where it will not be subject to hard wear. This beautiful stone is characterized by its translucence, and can actually be backlit for striking, dramatic effects.
Onyx is quartz crystals fused together by nature into translucent layers of stone, revealing a rainbow of colors ranging Form creamy whites, gold's and ambers to orange, reds, browns deep greens, and grays. Onyx is not a new stone; It is actually millions of year old! A natural process of heat and pressure creates a crystalline stone rich in color and pattern that reaches well below the surface to reveal a truly unparalleled inner warmth, depth and opalescence.
The name Onyx is derived from the Greek term meaning the nail of a finger. It's a member of the chalcedony family which includes carnelian, agate, etc. Occurring naturally in a variety of colours, black onyx is polished to enhance it's appearance, a member of the quartz family. Originally, almost all colours of chalcedony from white to dark brown and black were referred to as onyx. Today we tend to think of onyx as black. A variety of onyx which is reddish brown with white and lighter red bands is called sardonyx.
Similar to limestone, onyx is a softer stone best placed where it won't be used or abused on a day to day basis. It is porous and needs to be sealed. Otherwise, it will absorb water and liquids easily which tend to stain the stone. Once a stain is absorbed into onyx, it is extremely hard to remove.
Onyx marble is most often used as a fireplace surround, bar top, or as a small island because it transmits light.
Heb. shhm; Sept. onychion; Vulg. lapis onychinus; the eleventh stone of the breastplate in the Hebrew and the Vulgate (Exodus 28:20; 39:13), representing the tribe of Joseph. The Vulgate indeed gives onyx as the equivalent of the Hebrew shhm. Stronger evidences are in the fact that the Hebrew word occurs frequently in scripture. (Genesis 2:12; Exodus 25:7; 25:9, 27; 1 Chronicles 29:2; etc.) and on each occasion, but Job, xxviii, 16, it is translated in the Vulgate by lapis onychinus (lapis sardonychus in Job 28:16). The Greek is very inconsistent in its translation, rendering shhs differently in various texts; thus in Gen., ii, 12, it is lithos prasinos, sardios in Ex. xxv, 7; v, 9; smaragdos in Ex., xxviii, 9; v, 27; ix, 6; soam, a mere transcription of the Hebrew word in I Par., xxix, 2; and onyx in Job, xxviii, 16. Onyx is the stone signified by shhm. The onyx is a variety of quartz analogous to the agate and other crypto-crystalline species. It is composed of different layers of variously coloured carnelian much like banded agate in structure, but the layers are in even or parallel planes. Hence it is well adapted for the cutting of cameos and was much used for that purpose by the ancients. The colours of the best are perfectly well defined, and are either white and black, or white, brown, and black. The best specimens are brought from India. Sardonyx has a structure like onyx, but is composed usually of alternate layers of white chalcedony and carnelian, although the carnelian may be associated with layers of white, brown, and black chalcedony. The ancients obtained the onyx from Arabia, Egypt, and India.
LIMESTONE
Limestone is formed near hotsprings and colours can range from creamy whites to browns and blacks which impart warmth and subtlety to any structure. It's mainly sedimentary rock consisting of organic material such as tiny grains of sand, skeletons, and shells of marine life, and other sediments, which form ooliths around which calcium carbonate adheres. All limestones originated as sea-floors of tropical regions of the world, and there are limestones which are in process in this way at the present time. Seawater contains carbon dioxide (C0 2) which escapes when warmed by the sun. As this takes place, calcium and bicarbonate ions in the water combine to form calcium carbonate, like scales form inside a kettle.
Limestone contains calcite. It does not show much graining or crystalline structure. It has a smoothe granular surface. It varies in hardness. Some dense limestone can be polished. There are limestones called Beauharnais (Bow-Are-NAY) which are very hard and dense. Limestone is known to contain lime from seawater. It comes in black, gray, white, yellow and brown. Finishes include polished, honed and tumbled. All limestone however, is still calcium based, so susceptible to stains.
The shelly limestones of the Purbeck Beds, Eng., and the ussex marble, both of Mesozoic Era (from 65,000,000 to 225,000,000 years ago), consist of masses of shells of freshwater snails embedded in blue, gray, or greenish limestone.
JERUSALEM'S TEMPLE MOUNT
The dome of the rock in Jerusalem is built upon Mount Moriah. It was on Mount Moriah that Abraham was to offer up his son Isaac as a sacrifice to God ( Gen. 22:1-14). Solomon, with help of Hiram of Tyre and 183,600 workers, builds the First Temple and Royal Palace using local limestone, cedar from Lebanon and great amounts of gold and silver. (Temple built in seven years.) (1 Kings 5-9, 2 Chronicles 2)
The Temple Mount is a elevated plateau in Jerusalem's Old City. The Mount was one summit of a range of hills which went under the general name of Zion. According to the Bible, King David purchased a threshing floor owned by Aravnah the Jebusite (2 Samuel, 24:18-25) overlooking Jerusalem upon the cessation of a plague, to erect an altar. The Dome of the Rock," so called from a huge block of limestone rock in the center of the floor, which, it is supposed, formed the elevated threshing-floor of Araunah, and on which King David made a great brazen altar on (see 2Samuel 24). King Solomon built the temple of God in Jerusalem right on this threshing-floor ( 2Chr. 3:1). David longed to construct a permanent temple there, but as his hands were the uniform thickness found in most of the blocks used throughout the structure. Stonecutters would incise a groove in the stone with a long-bladed, two-sided pick called an escoude. When the outline was as deep as the tool would cut (16 to 18 inches), a shallower groove was cut along the bottom of the stone to establish a plane of weakness at that depth, then wooden wedges were pounded in to fracture the stone along the desired lines. When the stone was pried free, a small crane with a manually operated windlass lifted it onto a cart pulled by oxen.
Since the Pont du Gard was a technical work far from the city, no aesthetic considerations were applied when finishing the stones. They were cut out of the quarry as close to their finished size as possible and only the joint surfaces were dressed to provide the tightest dry fit. Because of this, telling marks of the tools can still be seen and appreciated. Archaeological digs in 1985 and 2000 uncovered previously unknown parts of the quarry.
They were a favourite material of medieval architects and may be seen in Westminster Abbey and a number of English cathedrals. Limestone was a very popular building block in the middle ages in the areas where it occurred since it is hard, durable, and commonly occurs in easily accessible surface exposures. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of limestone. Black limestones containing bituminous matter, which commonly emit a fetid odour when struck, are widely used; the well-known petit granit of Belgium is a black marble containing crinoid stem plates, derived from fossil echinoderms (invertebrate marine animals).
The Great Pyramid of Cheops, the only remaining wonder of the ancient world, was built of massive limestone blocks around 2560 BC. Visitors to the pyramid today marvel at its size, but recognize that it appears blocky and rough. Even the ancients were concerned with aesthetics, though, and the pyramid was once lined with perfectly smooth casing stones, which were stolen over the years to build homes and temples. The interior burial chamber for the pharaoh is built of granite blocks hewn so perfectly that a piece of paper cannot be slid between them, even today. The ancient Egyptians likely harbored many astounding secrets about stonework.
Limestone is especially popular in architecture, and many landmarks around the world, such as Israel. The Western Wall (Kotel) is constructed of limestone. The edges of the stones have a kind of chiseled border around them, a design typical of King Herod (first century BCE) who built the wall as a retaining wall for the Temple Mount. Notice that there is no cement or mortar holding them together. As you look up, the stones get smaller. This is because stones were added over the centuries. The base of the wall is actually about twenty feet below ground. One of the stones is more than 40 feet long, and weighs 400 tons. This is the largest stone ever quarried by man - nothing near its size exists in Greece, in the pyramids, or in Manhattan. No crane today can even lift such a stone. How it got there is an engineering marvel. Others stones are over 100 tons. These stones can be viewed in the archeological tunnels that have been opened in the past few years. One theory is that the quarry was located to the north of the Temple Mount and at a higher elevation, so that the builders could push the stones into place using the lever and pulley systems existent at the time.
The Catacombs of Paris is a famous burial place in Paris, France. It is a network of subterranean tunnels and rooms located in what were Roman-era limestone quarries. The quarries were converted into a mass tomb near the end of the 18th century. It is most widely known as "the catacombs", but the official title is "les carrières de Paris" or "the quarries of Paris." Though the official tour only passes through the quarries in the 14th arrondissement, there are actually quarries in the 5th, 6th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th arrondissements.
It's abundant in North America and Europe, are made primarily of the material. So many buildings in Kingston, Ontario, Canada were constructed from it, that it was nicknamed the 'Limestone City'. Limestone is readily available and relatively easy to cut into blocks or more elaborate carving. It is also long-lasting and stands up well to exposure. However, it is a very heavy material, making it impractical for tall buildings. It is also quite expensive. Limestone was most popular in the early 20th and late 19th centuries. Train stations, banks and other structures from that era are normally limestone. Limestone is used as a facade on some skyscrapers, but only in thin plates for covering rather than solid blocks. In the United States, Indiana has long been noted as a source of high quality quarried building Indiana limestone, while many famous buildings in London are built from Portland limestone. Limestone was most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries — train stations, banks and other structures from that era are often limestone. It is used as a facade on some skyscrapers, but only as thin cladding rather than solid structural blocks. Limestone does have the potential to burn, so should be protected from hot pots and pans.
SANDSTONE
Sandstone rocks are sedimentary rocks made from small grains of the minerals quartz, which is the main ingredient, but is accompanied by mica, feldspar and other minerals. Most sandstone is formed in oceans, lakes, and rivers where tiny bits of rock and dirt settle to the bottom. Year after year, these layers of sand are continually buried under tons of more sand and dirt until it's turned to solid rock. The chemical constitution is that of sand, the rock is thus composed of essentially quartz. Grains may be cemented by silica, calcite, or iron oxides. Sandstone often forms in layers, with fossils embedded in the layers. They are often used as building stones. Sandstone is often marked with the ripples of an ancient sea bed. It can be found in many colours which range from red, brown, greenish, yellow, grey, and white. Sandstone can be found in abundance in Israel. At Beersheba, sandstone blocks integrated into the walls of the storehouses were originally part of a four-horned altar. Three of the sandstone blocks preserved the shape of large horns typical of four-horned altars, while a fourth showed evidence that the horn had been broken off. Another of the stones bore the image of a deeply incised serpent.
The circle of stones lying on the outer circle of Stonehenge is called 'The Outer Sarsen Circle'. It is composed of 30 squarish upright stones made of a type of sandstone called Sarsen. It forms a 100 ft diameter. Each standing stone reaches about 13 1/2ft above the ground, and is about 7ft wide and 3 3/4ft thick. The stones sitting atop the uprights are called lintels, and are about 10 1/2ft long, 3 1/2ft wide, and 2 3/4ft thick. They are attached to the tops of the stones by a method similar to that of the mortise & tenon, a common woodworkers joint. No mortar was used whatsoever in Stonehenge.
The historic section of the capital city of Berne, listed as a cultural heritage project, is almost entirely built of locally Bernese Sandstone. The sandstone deposits in India are primarily found in Rajasthan - the only place in India with extensive deposits. The districts of Karauli, Dholpur and Bharatpur on the east, Kota, Bundi, Bhilwara and Chittorgarh on the south, and Nagaur and Jodhpur on the west of Jaipur are the most promising ones. The extension of deposits can be seen on the map. Shivpuri and Lalitpur in Madhya Pradesh also have some deposits of sandstone. Lemon Tint Mint and Lalitpur Yellow are being exported in different sizes and thicknesses.
Sandstone can be used for such projects as
A distinctive pink granite forms most of Pikes Peak, Colorado. Its major constituent is pink-orange potassium feldspar. The gray, clear mineral is quartz, which is diagnostic of granite—that is, a rock without quartz, no matter what else is in it, cannot be called granite. There are also a few rare white grains of plagioclase feldspar, and also a darker mineral, the brown mica phlogopite. As old as the earth itself, granite is one of the hardest and durable of all building stones. Syene Opening (Eze 29:10; Eze 30:6), a town of Egypt, on the borders of Ethiopia, now called Assouan, on the right bank of the Nile, notable for its quarries of beautiful red granite called "syenite." It was the frontier town of Egypt in the south, as Migdol was in the north-east. Herodotus stated that 100,000 men constructed the Great Pyramid in a period of twenty years. Though this has been the accepted theory for several centuries in all reality it is somewhat absurd. Simple mathematics will show us why. In 20 years there are 7305 days. There are about 2,300,000 blocks of stone in the Pyramid, most averaging 2.5 tons in weight.
The accepted theory requires that at least 315 of these 2.5 ton blocks to be placed in the pyramid every day.
The obelisk of Hatshepsut, built in the year 1457 BC, during the XVIII dynasty, is the second biggest of all the ancient Egyptian obelisks. Made of one single piece of pink granite, it has a height of 28.58 metres and its weight is 343 tons. It is located in the Big Temple of Amon, in Karnak.
The term "granite" means "grain" in Latin, and is derived from "Granum" because of it's granular nature. Granite is volcanic rock, called igneous rock. Granite is formed from magma. Granite magma has many potential origins but it must intrude other rocks. Granite magma must make room for itself or be intruded into other rocks in order to form an intrusion, and several mechanisms have been proposed to explain how large batholiths have been emplaced. When the magma comes out of the earth's crust through a volcano as lava and is exposed to the surface elements, it cools and hardens, producing the more porous and less dense stones, such as pumice. This type of igneous stone is called "extrusive."
If the magma cools and hardens inside the earth, it is called "intrusive" rock. This rock cools slowly and has large crystals. When the magma does not reach the earth's surface, it is formed into a variety of geological structures. This intrusive type of stone is what is typically used as building stone. It is quarried from beneath the earth's surface and it comes in a variety of types, such as granite, basalt and obsidian.
Most granite intrusions are emplaced at depth within the crust, usually greater than 1.5 kilometres and up to 50km depth within thick continental crust. It is very hard, crystalline. When the molten material forming the earth's core (magma) comes up from just beneath the earth's surface, it cools, forming the crystalline granular structure called "Granite." It is primarily made of quartz (35%) feldspar (45%) and potassium. The differences in the color of granite are due to the percentage of quartz, mica and feldspar. The Vosges, though not the highest elevations, are composed of granite, exhibiting no vestige of marine products, and these granites are not covered with calcareous beds, although the sea has borne its relics to much greater heights in other places. With this exception, it is only in high vitreous mountains that the ancient structure and primitive composition of the earth can be seen bare in masses of quartz, veins of jasper, groups of granite, and metallic veins. Various placements of minerals form the pattern of granite.
Granite contains little calcite. Provides a heavy crystalline and granular appearances with mineral grains and can be polished to a high shine. The stone comes in a variety of colors ranging from salt and pepper to reddish brown and black. Due to the extreme hardness and density of granite, it accepts a long lasting polish. Historic applications of this stone: The Red Pyramid of Ancient Egypt (c.26th century BC), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed granite surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids. Menkaure's Pyramid, likely dating to the same era, was constructed of limestone and granite blocks. The Great Pyramid of Giza (c.2580 BC) contains a huge granite sarcophagus fashioned of "Red Aswan Granite." The mostly ruined Black Pyramid dating from the reign of Amenemhat III once had a polished granite pyramidion or capstone, now on display in the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (see Dahshur). Other uses in Ancient Egypt, include columns, door lintels, sills, jambs, and wall and floor veneer. In kitchen applications such as countertops and kitchen islands, hot pots may be set directly on the granite. However care must be taken not to burn yourself, because the stone will retain heat.
ALABASTER
Alabaster occurs in the New Testament only in the notice of the alabaster box of ointment which a woman brought to our Lord when he sat at meat in the house of Simon the leper at Bethany. She poured the contents on the head of Jesus (Matthew 26:7; Mark 14:3; Luke 7:37). Near the remains of Memphis stands the Alabaster Sphinx. The Alabaster Sphinx was carved in honor of an unknown Pharaoh most likely during the eighteenth dynasty, between 1700 and 1400 BC. Although there was not an inscription, the facial features suggest that it was in honor of Hatshepsut or Amenhotep II or Amenhotep III. Amenhotep III is thought to be the builder of the Luxor Temple.
The Alabaster Sphinx is 8m (26 ft) long and 4m (13 ft) tall and weighs around 90 tons. It has corroded over the centuries, but remains very impressive. This monument may have stood outside of the Temple of Ptah along with the Colossus of Ramses II. The Alabaster Sphinx spent many years lying on its side in water. This was responsible for the damage to the surface of the monument.
Alabaster is found throughout the histories of Sumer, Babylon and Assyria and of course, Mexico and Egypt. Deposits of alabaster are not only found in Egypt also in countries like Algeria, England, United States, Belgium, India, Turkey, Spain, Cyprus, and Italy.
This type of natural material is defined as fine-grained, massive gypsum (q.v.) that has been used for centuries for statuary, carvings, and other ornaments. It normally is snow-white and translucent but can be artificially dyed; it may be made opaque and similar in appearance to marble by heat treatment. Florence, Livorno, and Milan, in Italy, and Berlin are important centres of the alabaster trade.
"Alabaster is a beautiful and varied stone prized by sculptors worldwide since the beginning of recorded history. It has been deposited in nature in an incredible rainbow of colors. It can be translucent as in the variety Selenite or nearly opaque, transmitting little light. The translucent stone is quarried either in open pits or underground. In open pits, veins of Alabaster are found 12 to 20 feet below the surface under a layer of shale which can be two or three feet deep. The rocks have an average height of 16-20 inches and a diameter of two to three feet. Rarely do the rocks exceed these sizes.
Usually describes the mineral Gypsum, especially the varieties that are compact, take a good polish, and often have some degree of translucency. This term has occasionally been applied to some types of very pure, fine grained and semi-translucent Marbles such as much of the stone used in ancient Egypt for both functional and decorative objects. Oriental alabaster (marble) was extensively used by the Egyptians in sarcophagi, in the linings of tombs, in the walls and ceilings of temples, and in vases and sacrificial vessels. The Romans worked the Algerian and Egyptian quarries and used the stone for similar purposes. In modern times it was used by Muhammad Ali for his mosque in Cairo. The French make extensive use of alabaster in interior decoration. Cosmetic jars made of this are intricately carved, and the bible contains a story of a woman who possessed a perfume vial of this sort.
SOAPSTONE
Soapstone is a metamorphic rock mainly composed of quartz and muscovite, along with other minerals. It can be made into roofing slates (shingles) because of its grain, two lines of breakability that make it possible to split into thin sheets. It is composed of talc, magnesium silicate and chlorite. The softer is known as "talc" and is used to carve or crush to a powder for a variety of purposes. It is a quarried stone that comes in shades such as green/gray, blue/gray and charcoal gray in its natural state but turns quite dark to almost black with the application of mineral oil. In the 18th and 19th centuries, slate was used for blackboards and individual writing slates. More recently, it has been used for laboratory bench tops and billiard table tops due to it's thermal stability and chemical inertness. Soapstone occurs in many metamorphic terranes throughout the world. Two well-known sources of soapstone used for carvings (etc.) are the Limbue quarries, near Lake Nyasa, Malawi (formerly Nyasaland) and quarries near Kundla, Gujarat State, India. Soapstone for Canadian Eskimo carvings has come from the Yukon Territory and Baffin Island. In the western United States, perhaps the best known source of soapstone used for carvings (etc.) is Skagit County, Washington. Quarries near Schulyer, Nelson County, Virginia, which have been a good source of soapstone used for such things as griddles and acid-resistant counter tops and sinks, would appear to constitute a potential source of carving material.
There are a variety of soapstone on the market today, but they are typically divided into 2 broad categories: architectural soapstone and artistic soapstone. Architectural soapstone is used for a number of building products including:
It's is the hardest building material, has high load bearing capability, is resistant to chemical erosion, with it's durability makes it resistant to weathering, yet capable of taking a mirror polish. It comes in facinating colours, and testural patterns, making it an excellent choice for kitchen counter tops, custom made furniture such as table tops, desks or garden furniture, bathroom vanities, and fireplace surrounds. India is one of the leading producers of slab granite and granite tile. Major granite producing regions are the Scandinavian Peninsula (mostly in Finland and Norway), Spain ( mostly in the Galicia area), Brazil, India and several countries in the South end of the African continent, namely Angola, Namibia, Zimbabwe and South Africa.
In the days just prior to His crucifixion, a woman at Bethany (see The Place Of Christ's Ascension And Return) anointed Jesus Christ with the contents of an alabaster flask. (Luke 7:36-50)
It's a common misconception that architectural soapstone, also called architectural-grade soapstone, is too soft for construction projects. Architectural soapstone is frequently preferred over granite and marble. Artistic soapstone is in fact too soft for construction. It is however, easy to cut and shape, which is the reason it is preferred by artists and crafts people for making sculptures, ornaments, and other art pieces.
THE DAILY CARE OF YOUR STONE COUNTERTOP
THE PROFESSIONAL MAINTENANCE PROGRAM FOR YOUR NATURAL STONE
The high gloss of a polished stone surface in a traffic area will appear dirty and dull in time due to erosion. The primary cause is tiny superficial scratches created by soil, sand and grit. These microscopic particles constantly are constantly ground into the floor surface. Some will get trapped into the pores of the stone while others will move around and erode the surface. Although all stone floors are exposed to these erosive conditions, some withstand the attack better than others.
What makes stone shine with a glossy finish in the first place? Stone is taken from the earth in a raw block form. The block is cut into slices called slabs. The slabs are cut to a smaller size appropriate for the application needed, such as a shower cladding or countertop. Then it's polished using a series of abrasive materials. Abrasives are used beginning with a course sized grit and followed by finer and finer grit sizes. The scratch pattern left behind from one grit is removed by the next grit creating finer and finer scratches. This process is continued until the scratch pattern becomes microscopic. The shine is placed on the stone by continuing this abrading process using very fine powders.
This is done by applying a penetrating (not surface) sealer. Such penetrating products fill the pits and voids and actually become an integral part of the floor itself. The primary purpose of sealing is to provide protection to the marble itself. Ordinary dirt and soil are sealed out of the floor as if all pits and voids have been filled and sealed. They are held on the surface where they can easily be removed. Marble floors properly sealed and finished are easy to clean and maintain. Marble floors should not be sealed until the surface is thoroughly cleaned and dried.
Stun marks appear as white marks on the surface of the stone and are common in certain types of marble. These stuns are the result of tiny explosions inside the crystal of the stone. Pin point pressures placed on the marble cause these marks. Women's high heels or blunt pointed instruments are common reasons for stun marks. Stun marks can be difficult to remove. Grinding and/or honing can reduce the number of stuns, but some travel through the entire thickness of the stone.
A common problem people contact us to solve is the removal of stains from stone floors and counters. In some cases, this is due to surface dirt. But stains can occur because the stone has never been impregnated, or the impregnator has been applied improperly. A properly applied high quality impregnator will greatly reduce the porosity of the stone and inhibits stains. Not all stone installers are competent is applying impregnators.
Some stones may be chemically hardened in order to resist abrasion more effectively. Limestone may be hardened by a number of chemical processes including silica impregnators, silico-fluoride treatments, or binding processes may give a hardening effect.
We are almost always able to remove stains from stone. Once we determine the type of substance that is causing the stain, we can usually remove it with either the application of a chemical cleaner or sanding the surface.
Fast curing, special epoxy resins and colouring agents are used for repair Colours can be mixed to match any stone colour so most chip repairs will blend in almost perfectly to the original stone Once applied the resin is left to dry for approximately 5 minutes then ground back to an even surface. The surface of the stone is then polished to restore the original finish. Cracks may be slightly noticeable on close inspection but the surface will be smooth to touch Chip repairs can usually only be detected by a trained eye. Repair of chips must be carried out as soon as possible so the integrity of the stone is not compromised. Liquid and dirt entering the chip will discolour and stain the stone and could cause the stone to further break down. Cracked benchtops that are not repaired immediately may allow moisture to penetrate down to the level of cupboards underneath causing the timber to swell Some items such as tables or benchtops will require reinforcement so steel rods are secured to the underside of the stone. The rods strengthen and support the area
When improper cleaning products are routinely used, this can dull the finish and beauty of your natural stone. A small area should be tested. The unique appearance of your natural stone can be restored through the use of professional refinishing techniques. Grinding or sanding are the historical methods of restoring a worn or weathered stone surface to it's original condition. It is also the pre-conditioning stage for polishing with oxides. Silicon carbide and diamonds are the most common abrasives used.
Sealing granite and natural stone with penetrating sealers, (also called impregnators), protects the structure of a natural stone. They protect the stone from within. When sealing natural stone or granite with this type of sealer, it is applied directly to the face of the stone with a soft cloth. It's simple to do and does not require a stone specialist. This type of sealer is recommended for sealing granite.
The sealer will penetrate below the stone's surface without leaving a coating or film on top. The stone below the surface will be protected, however, there is no surface protection. This means calcareous natural stones such as marble, onyx, limestone, and travertine can still etch or dull if acidic products such as orange juice or coke are left on your stone.
To help provide surface protection, a natural vegetable soap cleanser or a cleanser made specifically for natural stone should be used. These cleansers build up a thin film layer between periodic deep cleanings. Natural vegetable soaps and stone cleaners remove dirt and debris from the stone's surface the same as a detergent soap does. They are just milder.
Etching is the result of a chemical reaction occuring when acid comes in contact with a surface. Etch marks on stone surfaces resemble water spots or a worn polish.
Items like orange juice, coffee, vinegar, wine, tomato products, mustard, and many soft drinks are highly acidic and will etch, discolor, or even scratch most marble, limestone, and travertine (acid resistant stones like most granite, slate, and sandstone will typically not etch). Sealing will give you time to clean up a spill, but cannot stop the chemical reaction that may leave a dull mark. Professional refinishing is the best way to remove etch marks and restore your natural stone’s even finish.
Sometimes due to improper cutting or installation gaps have occurred. As a qualified professional, I can usually repair this on-site, by marking out the area and then cutting or reshaping it with a diamond blade saw.
Efflorescence is a white substance which looks like dried foam containing mineral salts, which can appear on the surface of any stone from time to time. It occurs when moisture in the stone causes the salt in the stone to liquefy and travel to the surface. It can also occur if washed river sand is not used under tiles before laying. The salt in the base can work its way up through the stone over time. Some stones are affected more than others depending on the salt content in the stone Steel wool and a special detergent are used to remove efflorescence but this must only be attempted by a stone care professional. The special detergent soaks into the stone and produces a chemical reaction with the salt, causing it to solidify so it cannot travel to the surface. Efflorescence may return slowly or not at all, depending on the level of salt and moisture in the stone
THE UNIQUE FACETS OF USING NATURAL STONE
NATURAL STONE FOR OUTDOOR APPLICATIONS
In your garden , practically any natural stone can be used. Granite pathways are popular, especially when complemented with granite lanterns or Japanese basins and sculptures. If you like marble, you could utilize such custom made items as stone marble fountains, flowerboxes in marble, plant stands, garden benches or sculptures for an elegant effect. Limestone pathways in earthtone hues add a touch of class, or you could try slate flagging. Garden walls may be done in slate slabs for a unique decorating texture on a patio. You could design an outdoor kitchen with a barbecue area using natural stone on the walls and floors as a backdrop.
Travertine and slate look very attractive outdoors, with slate around the pool area and the driveway. But nothing looks quite as imposing and distinguished as a nameplate in polished granite, particularly black granite.
(Stone Craftsman-Seattle/Bellevue & Surrounding areas)
For a free estimate (425) 615-0753
Tom Campbell
There are 5 things needed in order to get your an estimate:
Please indicate where the backsplash will be, in your drawing, and which edges will have which edge detail.
LINKS
Alana Campbell's Artwork
Our Cougar Mountain Art Studio
Alana Campbell's Skylark Studio
The Sanctified Imagination
Rembrandt Harmenszoon (son of Harmen) van Rijn
Johannes Vermeer
Pierre Auguste Renoir
Claude Monet: Impressionist Painter
Mural Artist
Mural Matters
Artistic Florentine Mosaics
Product Methods & Sizes
Home Depot Marble-Granite-Stilestone
1856 Marble Workers Manual
Maintaining The Beauty of Natural Stone
Natural Stone Color Chart
Walker-Zanger Limestone Tile
Types of Marble
The Sword And The Stone
Gathering Out The Stones
Vacation & Learn
Skylark Studio
Michael Homchick Stoneworks
Terra Cotta Roof Tile
Pompei Terra Cotta Tile
Ambiente Tile
East Coast Tile
Bath Vanities
Western Tile & Marble
Haifa Stone
Italian Marble Border Tile
Egyptian Quarries
Anasazi Digs
Dinasaur Footprints Discovered In Quarry
Jeru. Temple Excavation
Africa
Ancient Phoenicean Quarries
Tom Campbell is married to Alana Campbell. Alana is an artist in oils, watercolour, acrylic, pen and ink and mixed media. They have 3 sons and 3 daughters. The Campbells reside in Redmond, Washington.
2Ki 12:12-And to masons, and hewers of stone, and to buy timber and hewed stone to repair the breaches of the house of the LORD, and for all that was laid out for the house to repair it.
Isa 58:12-And they that shall be of thee shall build the old waste places: thou shalt raise up the foundations of many generations; and thou shalt be called, The repairer of the breach, The restorer of paths to dwell in.
But the Stone that struck the image became a great mountain and filled the whole earth. (Daniel 2:35)
