Complete Table of Contents
Executive Summary *
Foreword *
Acknowledgments *
List of Figures *
List of Tables *
Chapter 1. General Introduction *
Section 1.1 Statement of the Problem *
Section 1.2 Research Hypothesis and Central Scientific Questions *
Section 1.3 Structure of this Thesis *
Chapter 2. The Evolution, Exposure Consequences and Regulation of Cleaning Solvents *
Section 2.1 Water: the Universal Solvent *
Section 2.2 Organic and Chlorinated Cleaning Solvents: Like Dissolves Like *
Section 2.3 Characterization of Chemical Types *
Section 2.4 Modes of Solvency vs. Methods of Cleaning *
Section 2.5 Environmental and Health Effects *
Part 1: Atmospheric Ozone Depletion and the Role of the Chlorine Atom *
Part 2: Global Warming and Acid Rain *
Part 3: Terrestrial and Aquatic Habitat Impacts *
Part 4: Carcinogenicity, Neurotoxicity and Reproductive Toxicity *
Part 5: Cardiovascular and Central Nervous System Damage *
Section 2.6 Legislative Initiatives to Control Atmospheric Chlorine *
Part 1: International Efforts: the Montreal Protocol *
Part 2: United States Efforts: the Clean Air Act to the Toxics Release Inventory *
Part 3: Massachusetts Efforts: the Toxics Use Reduction Act and Institute *
Section 2.7 Observations *
Chapter 3. The Search for Safer, Greener Chemical Cleaners: An Introduction *
Section 3.1 Overview of the International Community’s Response *
Part 1: No-Clean Techniques *
Part 2: Use of Non-Volatile Organic Compounds *
Part 3: Alternative Cleaning Methods Chosen for this Study *
Section 3.2 Aqueous Cleaners and How They Work *
Part 1: Water Polarity and Surfactant Micelles *
Part 2: Builders and Alkalinity *
Part 3: Aqueous Processes and Chemical Constituents *
Part 4: Parameters: Time, Agitation, Concentration and Temperature, TACT *
Part 5: Rinsing and Drying *
Section 3.3 Semi-Aqueous Cleaners *
Section 3.4 Observations *
Chapter 4. Developing a Test Method for Surface Cleaning *
Section 4.1 Designing a Questionnaire for Companies with Cleaning Problems *
Part 1: A Government-Sponsored Test Form *
Part 2: Industry-Inspired Test Forms *
Part 3: Creating a New Cleaning Assessment Form *
Part 4: Results, Conclusions and Recommendations *
Section 4.2 Analytical Techniques Used to Determine Surface Cleanliness *
Part 1: Gravimetry *
Part 2: Microscopy *
Part 3: Goniometry and Other Secondary Surface-Effect Phenomena *
Part 4: Fluorescence and Other Visual Aids *
Part 5: Optically Stimulated Electron Emission *
Part 6: Spectroscopy *
Part 7: Other Techniques *
Part 8: Results, Conclusions and Recommendations *
Chapter 5. Developing a Test Method for Surface Cleaning (cont.) *
Section 5.1 Determining the Stages of an Aqueous Cleaning Trial for this Study *
Phase I: MSDSs, Cleaning Coupons and Subjective Analyses *
Phase II: TACT, Cleaning Coupons and Objective Analyses *
Phase III: TACT, Cleaning Coupons and Application-Specific Analyses *
Phase IV: TACT, Cleaning and Evaluating Parts *
Phase V: Piloting and Scaling-Up the Process *
Results, Conclusions and Recommendations *
Chapter 6. Enhancing the Search for Safer, Greener Chemical Cleaners (cont.) *
Section 6.1 End Users: Testing Non-Aqueous Alternative Cleaners and Cleaning Mechanisms *
Part 1: Blasting with Crystalline Sodium Bicarbonate *
Part 2: Extracting with Supercritical Carbon Dioxide *
Part 3: Laboratory and Pilot Tests of Blasting and Extracting Methods *
Part 4: Results, Conclusions and Recommendations *
Section 6.2 Suppliers: Redesigning Questionnaires for Vendors of the Cleaning Industry *
Part 1: Massachusetts Guidebook of Parts’ Cleaning Alternatives *
Part 2: TURI Vendor Survey Database and the Questionnaires *
Part 3: Results, Conclusions and Recommendations *
Chapter 7. Enhancing the Search for Safer, Greener Chemical Cleaners (cont.)*
Section 7.1 Identifying and Using Appropriate Databases and Standards *
Part 1: The TOMES® Plus System *
Part 2: Inmagic® at TURI’s Technology Transfer Center *
Part 3: ASTM, Military and Industrial Standards *
Part 4: Other Organizations and Standards *
Part 5: Results, Conclusions and Recommendations *
Section 7.2 Employing Databases of Laboratory Tests Results *
Part 1: Searchable Fields *
Part 2: Results, Conclusions and Recommendations *
Section 7.3 Examination of Cleaning by Substrate Surface *
Part 1: Cleaning Stainless Steel *
Part 2: Cleaning Aluminum *
Part 3: Cleaning Other Metal Surfaces *
Part 4: Results, Conclusions and Recommendations *
Chapter 8. The Proposed Tool for Environmental Decision-Making *
Section 8.1 Summation of Notable Findings *
Section 8.2 Need for a Management Information System *
Part 1: Formation of an Interactive Matrix as an Information Management Too1 *
Part 2: Using the Tool, The Aqueous Way to Go *
Section 8.3 Relationship of the Tool to the Methodology Developed *
Part 1: Field Testing the Methodology, Critical Thinking for Cleaning Alternatives *
Part 2: Results, Conclusions and Recommendations *
Section 8.4 Review of the Answers to the Central Scientific Questions *
Section 8.5 Shortcomings of Aqueous Cleaning Technology *
Part 1: Energy Requirements and Water Usage *
Chapter 9. The Future of Industrial Cleaning and Related Public Policy-Making *
Section 9.1 Research and Development of Chemical Cleaners *
Part 1: Molecular Modeling *
Part 2: Data Mining of Cleaning Performance Criteria *
Part 3: Ionic Liquids as Solvents *
Section 9.2 Policy Making and Risk Assessment *
Part 1: The Case for Hormesis *
Part 2: Surfactants and Endocrine Disruption *
Part 3: Enzymatic/Protein Cleaners *
Section 9.3 Status of Related Public Policy *
Part 1: The Precautionary Principle: the European Model *
Part 2: The Effects of a Recent Policy Change: the United States *
Epilogue *
Glossary of Acronyms and Terms *
Appendices *
Bibliography *
Curriculum Vitae *
