Return to Personal pages
return to Essay pages
More recent this time, I have written this one for my Semester 1, year 1 module - it has been marked, but I'm not going to tell you what it got!! Compare my writing style with the really long essay, the style is really awful in the older one! - I'm so embarrased! The numbers in brackets refer to the bibliography texts, which are also numbered.
How are the introduction of Christianity and the changing attitudes of the Northern Germanic people shown in surviving runic and other sources?
793. In this year terrible portents appeared over Northumbria, which sorely affrighted the inhabitants; there were exceptional flashes of lightning, and fiery dragons were seen flying through the air. A great famine followed hard upon these signs; and a little later in that same year, on 8th of June, the harrying of the heathen miserably destroyed God's church on Lindesfarne by rapine and slaughter.5
From this auspicious beginning, the two religions of Christianity and paganism, as oil and water, would be thought never to mix successfully. However, in the following centuries these religions not only mixed, but for a time formed a transitional religion which fluctuated between the strict rules of Christianity and the fluidity of the unique Northern paganism. After this period of flux, Christianity gradually gained the upper hand; to stamp out the last remaining vestiges of the old superstitions connected with their former religion.
In Sweden, the evidence for this change is obvious and abundant. The testimony to this religious change lies in over 3500(1) rune stones. These silent memorials show a sharp change in the moral and social values of the early Swedes. Originally these where painted in red, yellow, black, white and blue, with decoration, runes and backgrounds picked out in different colours, bringing a strange sight to the countryside of Sweden. Traditional society valued the aspects of the warrior, bravery, courage and the gaining of material wealth in glorious deeds. Much of the Viking's history was ingrained in verbal traditions, the telling of stories, the reciting of genealogies and the retelling of legends.
With the advent of Christianity, the incoming values were at the opposite end of the spectrum. Whilst the Christians did not discourage bravery and courage, their emphasis was more on peaceful living, learning about as well as spreading the word of God and the gaining of spiritual wealth rather than the material benefits.
Before the arrival of Christianity in Sweden, rune stones testify to the expeditions and exploits of the warfare-based people. The Vikings felt that to die in battle was glorious, but to die of old age was embarrassing.
The Yttergarde stone in Uppland shows a typical inscription. Karse and Karlbjorn raised it in memory of their father Ulv of Borvesta, a great yeoman - farmer of Uppland; the inscription reads "Ulv took in England three Gelds. That was first which Toste paid. Then Torkel paid. Then Canute paid." Geld was probably a term used for a fine imposed to buy off Viking attacks 3. This is typical of the Viking memorials; others indicate death away from home, visiting Grikkland (Greece), Estoria, Livland, Finland, Jerusalem, Langobards land (Italy) and London. The evidence, purely from these stones, before the apparent introduction of Christianity, was on travel, communication, trade and the providing of land and material wealth for descendants. The pair of stones at Ulunda Ford in West Uppland commemorate the deceased by the following short verse " He went boldly / wealth he gained / out in Grikkland / for his heir." This shows the respect shown to givers of material goods, with emphasis on wealth for his family and his description of 'boldly' showing that this virtue was favoured. 3. Status of the dead was also commemorated, "Tova raised this stone in memory of Vrae, her father, Hakkon Jarls marshal." from the two rune stones at Savsjo in Smaland.
Large families are often mentioned, several generations or one large generation can often share the same memorial, serving as a mnemonic aid to remind whoever read it of the social relationships between people. Consider the Hogby stone, morbidly recording the death of five brothers: "The good farmer Gulle / had five sons: / At Fyris fell Asmund / the unfrightened warrior / Assur died / out east in Greece / Halvdan was / in Holmgard (formal duel) slain / Kare…(untranslatable) / Dead is Boe too. / Torkel cut the runes." 3. The stone at Maltsa records seven consecutive generations of the same family, mostly down the male line, the latest generations father having acquired 'this district and also three estates further North. He also acquired Lonnaker and afterwards Farsjo'
The change in belief, social and moral values brought on by Christianity can be seen clearly in the examples of 19 prominent stones which list the phrase 'to die in white clothes'. This was a description of the white robes worn for and for the week after the baptism; therefore 'to die in white clothes' was a sign of baptism shortly before death 3.
The stone at Torsatra, Uppland, reads "Unna had this stone raised after her son, Osten, who died in white clothes. God help his soul." Many of these deathbed baptisms occur in Denmark. The Amno Stone, in Uppland states that " Ingelev had this stone raised after Brune, her husband. He died in Denmark in white clothes. Balle cut (the runes)" along with the Haga Stone in Bondkyrka parish, Uppland. This was put up by parents in memory of their son who " died in Denmark in white clothes".
There are many examples of wishing the deceased to enter Christian Heaven, a far cry from the traditional Valhalla or Hall of Heroes. Examples come from the Risbyle stone, in Taby parish, Uppland: "God and Gods mother help his spirit and soul, grant him light and paradise." also from the Folsberga Stone in Vallby parish, Uppland
"May Christ let Tumnes soul come into light and paradise and into the world best for Christians". Oddly enough, there are no surviving rune stones which express a willing for the deceased to enter Valhalla.
However, a few echoes of the old faith still remained: the inscription on the Bornholm Stone, in Klemesher 1, reads " Gunnhild had this stone raised after Odbjorn her husband. May Christ help Odbjorns soul to light and paradise - Christ and Saint Michael help the souls of Odbjorn and Gunnhild to light and paradise." There is also a damaged inscription from Angby in Knivsta parish, Uppland "…Michael take care of his soul." Both these acknowledge St Michael, being the only saint mentioned on the rune stones. His patronage is of interest here; St Michael is the patron saint of warriors3. Perhaps, at this point, there are still echoes of the former religion, with warriorhood still being a mentally, if not visibly, acceptable vocation.
Connections with Jerusalem are mentioned on a few of the stones, with the inscription on the stones at Brodby bridge and Almarestaket reading "She wants to go to Eastward and out to Jerusalem" and "Osten went out to Jerusalem and died in Greece." Perhaps these two examples are the earliest evidence for special trips solely to visit Jerusalem, although the evidence is shaky at best.
The church also encouraged the production of 'good works'. To build bridges, clear tracks, build roads and build assembly places became pious acts to help the soul after death, it also left all weather serviceable roads for people to go to church. Seven notable examples remain; 5 from bridge building, one from the building of a quay or jetty and the last commemorates the building of a ford and travellers house, in memory of the deceased 3.
The Jarlabankes Bridge is the most impressive of these, consisting of four rune stones in pairs facing each other at the north and south ends of the bridge. Smaller standing stones also flank the bridge with no runes on them. The inscription is duplicated across both pairs, reading: " Jarlabanke had these stones raised in memory of himself while he still lived. And he built this bridge for his soul. And alone he owned the whole of Taby. God help his soul." So, those who where rich in material wealth were siphoned by the church, by putting the money into where the community could see the improved works and by inference, the wealth and influence of the Christian Church.
The runic crosses from the Isle of Wight present a slightly different picture. They are about 40 in number, the same amount as from the Viking land of Norway. They follow the tradition of commemorating the dead and defining the relationship between the deceased and still living relations, possibly for the tradition of inheritance claims, though there are no other supporting runic artefacts from this area. Suitable stone existed here, but it also existed in Danelaw, in mainland Britain, where rune stones where not made1. Stone monuments in the Isle of Man and in Central Britain often occur in Christian churchyards, though whether this is because they originally stood there, being clustered in between other memorials of the dead, or whether they where moved to these locations is unknown.
St Paul's Cathedral is a prime example. During renovation works, a rune stone was found and identified as part of a coffin. Another has been found in London, also identified as part of a stone coffin. As Christianity has a distinct burial pattern, these must belong to the amalgamation period, Christian coffins carved out of stone, but bearing pagan writing and buried in a Christian churchyard.
The Ruthwell Cross is another example of an amalgam object. It dates to around 700 AD and is inscribed in runic. When translated, the poem, now known as 'The Dream of Rood', was found to be written in Latin and described the crucifixion of Christ. This, like many of the 'deathbed conversion' rune stones of Sweden is unusual. It shows a predominantly Christian event, or legend, inscribed in a pagan script. With the Ruthwell cross, this process goes a stage further; the runes translate into Latin, although the inscription follows a traditional Swedish metre.
Other crosses also exist, showing the transitional period. The Lancaster Cross, the Thornhill Cross (in three fragments) the Hackness Cross and the Bewcastle Cross, all have runic inscriptions and all date to the 8th Century 2.
Of all of the transitional artefacts, the Franks or Aluzon Casket is probably the best known. This dates to the early 8th century, from Northumbria and is made from 6 complete whalebone panels forming a rectangular box. It is inscribed in runic and relates the legend of Romulus and Remus around decorative carved panels. This presents an interesting puzzle; some person in the past thought fit to carve whalebone into fitting panels, covering their surfaces with traditional pictorial carvings and filling the borders with a legend of the creation of Rome. Whilst this may not strictly be of Christian influence, the carver thought it important enough to include this legend above all others. With a wealth of Pagan Norse legends to choose from, the carver specifically chose a legend from a city the Vikings travelled to and had contact with, though its importance in the Christian histories is much more significant.
So, the change in religion, moral and social values is clear; the Viking people went from valuing trade, social merits, land ownership and bravery in battle, to the new Christian ideals of piety and morality.
This change is shown clearly in remaining runic artefacts, such as the Franks Casket, numerous British and Manx runic crosses. Burial practices may also have changed, with the Swedish rune stones showing the largest and clearest definitive evidence. These may be difficult to date but they show a distinct change in attitude, belief and social values from the previous traditional ones.
The Saga of Erik the Red, dated to the 13th Century, has a prime example of the then ongoing mix of traditional and Christian values. In chapter 3, a prophetess is invited into the house of a prominent local man, in order to tell the future of his lands, house and himself. The seeress asks for help from any woman who knows a charm-spell, so that she can get the attention of the spirits. The only woman who knows the particular charm is a Christian, who says "But this is a kind of lore and proceeding I feel I cannot assist in for I am a Christian woman." The prophetess replies "Yet it might happen, that you could prove helpful to people in this affair, and still be no worse a woman than before. 4 " Eventually the woman relents and speaks the charm. So, still in the 13th Century, long after the introduction of Christianity to the northern people, there are echoes of the struggle between Christianity and Paganism in the Northern Germanic world.
Bibliography
1) Richards, J Viking Age England, English Heritage
2) Elliot, RWV Runes, 1959, Manchester University Press, Manchester
3) Jansson, S The Runes of Sweden, 1962, Phoenix House Limited, London
4) Jones, G The Norse Atlantic Saga, 1986, Oxford University Press, Oxford
5) Magnusson, M Lindisfarne the Cradle Island, 1984, Oriel Press, Northumberland