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Learning From The Past and Planning For The Future
MENTAL HEALTH MOMENT November 1, 2002 "The hardest struggle of all is to be something different from what the average man is." - Charles M. Schwab
Short Subjects
LINKS Mental Health Moment Online CONFERENCES AND WORKSHOPS:
Basic and Advanced Critical Incident Stress Management Workshops
November 22-23, 2002
Holiday Inn
Casper, WY
Co-sponsored by:
Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health InstituteAnd Snowy Range A.S.I.S.T. CISM Team14 CEUs each
"Religious Aspects of Domestic Violence" November 24, 2002
Holiday Inn
Casper, WY
co-sponsored by:
Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health InstituteAnd The Governor's Domestic Violence Elimination (DoVE) Council4 CEUs
The Australasian Critical Incident
Stress Association Conference
The Right Response in the
21st Century
Location: Carlton Crest Hotel
Melbourne Australia
Friday October 3, 2003 thru
Sunday October 5, 2003
For further information
please contact the conference organisers
ammp@optushome.com.au3rd Ibero-American Congress on
Clinical and Health Psychology
November 20 - 23, 2002
Location: Caracas, VENEZUELA
Contact: Zuleyma Perez
Alcabala a Puente Anauco
Edificio Puente Anauco Piso # 2
Apartamento # 27
La Candelaria, Caracas (Venezuela)
Tel./Fax: (+58) 212-5713060
Email: apicsavenezuela@cantv.net
apicsa@attglobal.net
2002 BERLIN CONFERENCE ON
THE HUMAN DIMENSIONS
OF GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
December 6 - 7, 2002
Location: Berlin, GERMANY
Contact: Frank Biermann, Chair
DVPW Environmental Policy and
Global Change Section
biermann@pik-potsdam.de or
Sabine Campe, Manager
2002 Berlin Conference
sabine.campe@pik-potsdam.de
VIII European Conference
on
Traumatic Stress (ECOTS)
May 22 - 25 2003
Location: Berlin
GERMANY
Contact:
Scientific Secretariat
VIII ECOTS Berlin 2003
c/o Catholic University of
Applied Social Sciences
Koepenicker Allee 39-57
D-10318 Berlin
Tel: +49-30-50 10 10 54
Fax: +49-30-50 10 10 88
E-mail:
trauma-conference@kfb-berlin.de
Deadlines:
Abstract Submission
30 November 200227th Congress of the
World Federation for
Mental Health
February 21-26, 2003
Melbourne, AUSTRALIA
Contact: ICMS Pty Ltd
(Congress Secretariat)
84 Queensbridge Street
Southbank VIC 3006, Australia
Tel: 61 3 9682 0244
Fax: 61 3 9682 0288
E-mail: wfmh2003@icms.com.au
Annual Conference Society for
Industrial/Organizational Psychology (SIOP)
April 12 - 14, 2003
Location: Orlando, Florida
USA
Contact: lhakel@siop.bgsu.edu
WHAT'S IN THE NEWS: FIRST WOMAN GOVERNOR A RELUCTANT POLITICO
According to the latest edition of "What's in the News," a current events series for schoolchildren produced by Penn State Public Broadcasting, Nellie Tayloe Ross learned everything she needed to know to become the nation's first woman governor as a kindergarten teacher. Her brief time in a classroom in the late 19th century was her only professional experience before becoming Wyoming's governor in 1924. She believed a woman's place was in the home, and was reportedly dismayed when her husband, William Bradford Ross, was elected governor of Wyoming in 1922. Two years later, when he died in office, his allies asked his widow to run for the office. Although she did not respond, her silence was interpreted as agreement to run. She eventually became an active supporter of women in government and the first woman director of the U.S. Mint. This week, "What's in the News" takes a look at the upcoming mid-term elections, which could produce a record number of women governors, and other current events. For more information, visit http://www.witn.psu.edu
OPEN SPACE IS THE KEY TO TOP COMMUNITIES
As more communities become concerned with development, urban and suburban sprawl and zoning issues, urban planners and municipal officials should not forget the value of open or natural spaces within a community, says a community forestry expert in Penn State's College of Agricultural Sciences. "On a practical level, open spaces can improve water quality and availability, recreation opportunities and wildlife habitat," explains Bill Elmendorf, instructor and urban and community forest program coordinator in the School of Forest Resources. "Open places also generate feelings of quiet, beauty, solitude and freedom for individuals who use them." Examples of open space might include a city park, a natural wetland, a meadow or an area bordering a creek or river. Elmendorf points out that open space planning will become increasingly important to municipalities as larger cities and suburbs expand their boundaries into areas that were once rural. For more on this story, go to http://www.aginfo.psu.edu/News/october02/open.html
Keeping Children Safe
Over the past two years Annette LaGreca and her team have been conducting a series of studies examining the effects of community violence on children. This Keeping Children Safe Project, funded by the BellSouth Foundation, took place in the Miami Dade County Public Schools.
As result of this project, they have developed a prevention manual for teachers, counselors, and psychologists working with elementary school children, entitled "Keeping Children Safe". Although the manual is based on work conducted with children in the 3rd through 5th grades (ages 8 to 12 years), the activities can be modified and adapted for younger and older children.
If you are interested in receiving a printed copy of this manual, please send a letter of request to the following address: Annette M. La Greca, University of Miami, Department of Psychology, P.O. Box 248185, Coral Gables, FL. 33124-2070. The manual is available free of charge, as long as the current supply lasts.
You can also view and download a copy of this manual on their project website: http://www.keepingchildrensafe.com
Adult ADHD: Recent Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment
New research and new approaches to understanding ADHD in Adults and Children. For the article, go to: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/443113
Recognizing and Treating Stuttering in Children and Adults
Children who stutter confront a number of challenges that can affect the way they feel about themselves. Brown University Child and Adolescent Behavior Letter 18(10) 2002 http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/441906?mpid=5161
Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety disorders are a group of mental disturbances characterized by anxiety as a core symptom. West J Med 176(4) 2002 http://www.medscape.com/441702?mpid=5161
Bush Administration Makes Significant Progress In Preparing The Nation
The Bush Administration, through the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), is making significant progress in preparing the nation for future emergencies with a number of new initiatives, many related to issues addressed in the recent report by the Council on Foreign Relations. For the article, go to: http://www.fema.gov/nwz02/nwz02_199.shtm
Tornado Safe Room On Display
Residents in Indianapolis were presented the opportunity to learn more about tornado safe rooms this past weekend. FEMA hosted an information booth explaining the benefits of a safe room. Just last month, residents in the Indianapolis area were shaken by a series of tornadoes that ravaged the area. For more info, go to: http://www.fema.gov/diz02/d1433n28a.shtm
NEWS ARTICLES ONLINE NEBRASKA - Doctor details state's reponse to bio-terrorism threat http://www.theindependent.com/stories/102102/new_bioterror21.shtml
USA - U.S. to list JI as terror group http://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/southeast/10/21/indonesia.JI.US/
USA - U.S. Tells Oil, Transport Sectors to Boost Security http://reuters.com/news_article.jhtml?type=politicsnews&StoryID=1608975
CYBERTERROR - 9 of 13 Crucial Internet Computers Attacked - Net Attack Could Be First of Many, Experts Warn http://www.pcworld.com/news/article/0,aid,106266,00.asp
International INDONESIA - Oz issues fourth travel alert on Indonesia http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?click_id=126&art_id=ct20021020215106359I535101&set_id=1
CANADA - Health Canada plans 500 smallpox vaccinations http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2002/10/21/smallpox_vacc021021
GERMANY - Al-Qaida suspect reveals contacts with hijackers http://www.startribune.com/stories/484/3385159.html
TURKEY - Police detain seven suspected Hizbullah militants in Istanbul http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/news/183667.asp?cp1=1
SCHOLARSHIPS The Religious Aspects of Domestic Violence Workshop is sponsored in part by the Governor's Domestic Violence Elimination (DoVE) Council. The DoVE Council is providing 20 scholarships of $40.00 for this workshop. For scholarship information please contact the UW Outreach School, Office of Conferences & Institutes at 1-877-733-3618, ext. 1; 307-766-2124 or print out and mail the Scholarship Application Form at:
Scholarship Application in rtf Word Format
TERRORISM, TERRORISTS AND THEIR EFFECTS
Introduction and Background
On September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks caused the catastrophic collapse of the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Forty minutes after the World Trade Center was attacked a similar terrorist attack hit the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. The resultant physical devastation was beyond anything the United States has ever experienced. However, the psychological devastation may not be known for years.
The terrorist attacks in New York and Washington, D.C. as well as domestic terrorism in the United States and elsewhere in the world has prompted an analysis of the psychology of the terrorist. The terrorists' profound sense of being wronged-- their values undermined by foreign powers or a corrupt domestic power structure-- has called for revolution and revenge. The fanatic ideology of these people has provided a progressively more malevolent representation of the oppressors: the "Image of the Enemy" (Beck, 2002). The counterpart of the "Image of the Enemy" is the idealized collective self-image of members of the movement, faction, or cult. Group narcissism of white supremacists in the United States, Aum Shinrikyo in Japan, and Islamic extremists enhance their collective self-image as pure, righteous, and united. While foot soldiers, as in any war, gain glory through martyrdom, instigators and leaders have their own personal narcissistic goals (power and prestige) and plans. Extremist Islamists have the ultimate goal of overthrow of the moderate Islamic governments. Domestic terrorists have as their goal destabilization of the national government and reinstitution of traditional values.
Colvard (2002) argues that terrorist groups are not usually composed of violent people, but, rather people who choose to use violence as a tool to what they consider a reasonable end. The people who choose violence are usually fairly ordinary people who belong to extraordinary groups. Colvard maintains that researchers should look at the psychology of group processes rather than at individual psychopathology to understand their behavior. She also argues that violent groups are embedded within a network of psychological and ideological legitimacy, which gives them both material and moral support. This raises the question of terrorism as the by-product of a group mental disorder. Is it an extreme example of destructive cult behavior in which paranoid/narcissistic/sociopathic leaders convince vulnerable individuals to follow their megalomanic "logic" (Pomerantz, 2001)? Or, is terrorism just an example of religious fervor turned political and bold, having discovered a new form of warfare? Pomerantz (2001) believes the first hypothesis emphasizing mental difficulties as opposed to legitimate economic, political, and religious grievances is more likely.
Research on political terrorism which began in the early 1970s has faced some persistent problems. Some of these involve defining the concept, collecting empirical data, building integrative theory, and avoiding the attribution of terrorism to personality disorders or "irrationality." Analysis risks being driven by events or the concerns of policymakers (Crenshaw, 2000). However, it is generally accepted that psychological explanations of terrorism must take multiple levels of analysis into account, linking the individual to the group, and to society. Tucker et al (2001) suggest that future research should critically examine the assumption that a "new terrorism" has appeared at the end of the 20th century. They also suggest that analysts should take advantage of 30 years of history to develop comparisons and developmental studies that look not only at the causes of terrorism but also at changes in terrorist strategy, the termination of terrorist campaigns, government decision making, and policy effectiveness.
Effects On Victims
Schuster et al (2001) assessed the immediate mental health effects of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Using random-digit dialing 3 to 5 days after September 11, they interviewed a nationally representative sample of 560 US adults about their reactions to the terrorist attacks. They also assessed their perceptions of the reactions of their children (aged 5-18 yrs). Forty- four percent of the adults reported one or more substantial symptoms of stress. Ninety percent had one or more symptoms to at least some degree. Respondents throughout the country also reported stress symptoms. They coped by talking with others (98%), turning to religion (90%), participating in group activities (60%), and making donations (36%). Eighty-four percent of parents reported that they or other adults in the household had talked to their children about the attacks for an hour or more. Thirty-four percent restricted their children's TV viewing. Thirty-five percent of children sampled had one or more stress symptoms. Forty-seven percent were worried about their own safety or the safety of loved ones. Schuster et al (2001) concluded that after the September 11 terrorist attacks, Americans across the country, including children, had substantial symptoms of stress.
Rosenheck (2002) provided comment on the Schuster et al (2001) article. He compared the average number of daily outpatient visits during the 19 working days before and after September 11 in different clinical groups and geographic locations (excluding weekends, holidays, and September 11 itself). He concludes that although the events of September 11 were profoundly traumatic for those directly involved and clearly distressing for others, they are not necessarily medically significant. He found no substantial short term change in the use of services, even among more vulnerable patients with mental illness or post-traumatic stress disorder. Schuster et al (2002) replied to Rosenheck's (2002) comments on the original article. They state that their study found that most people were using coping strategies that are considered healthy, such as talking with others, turning to religion, participating in group activities, and volunteering. Many people's reactions will dissipate over time and without treatment, although ongoing threats, attacks, and unrelated catastrophes may prolong the process for some.
In an earlier study, Sprang (2001) explored the intermediate psychological effects of terrorism on adults not directly affected by the Oklahoma City bombing. She examinined the course of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and subthreshold PTSD symptoms over time and whether treatment affected this course. The 44 respondents (mean age 34.8 yrs) were interviewed at three month intervals for eighteen months following an initial six month survey. Sprang's analysis suggested avoidance, re-experiencing, and increased arousal symptoms in this population were limited over time. These declined with or without treatment between six and nine months. Conversely, victimization symptoms remained high without mental health intervention for the first year after the disaster. The study also examined the nature and occurrence of comorbidity in groups seeking and not seeking treatment.
Pfefferbaum et al (2001b) examined the influence of bomb-related TV viewing in the context of physical and emotional exposure on posttraumatic stress symptoms (intrusion, avoidance, and arousal) in middle school students following the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing. Over 2,000 middle school students in Oklahoma City were surveyed seven weeks after the incident. The primary outcome measures were the total posttraumatic stress symptom score and symptom cluster scores at the time of assessment. Bomb-related TV viewing in the aftermath of the disaster was extensive. Both emotional and TV exposure were associated with posttraumatic stress at seven weeks. Findings suggested that among children with no physical or emotional exposure, the degree of TV exposure was directly related to posttraumatic stress symptomatology. These findings suggest that TV viewing in the aftermath of a disaster may make a small contribution to subsequent posttraumatic stress symptomatology in children. Alternatively, they suggest that increased TV viewing may be a sign of current distress and should be monitored. They further suggest that future research should examine further whether early symptoms predict increased TV viewing and/or whether TV viewing predicts subsequent symptoms.
Religion and Terrorism
The central role of religion in the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, D.C. and other places is an important concern. Such terrorists are motivated by a militant fundamentalist worldview which rejects modernism. According to Osama bin Laden, corrupt Western values and mores are not to be tolerated, making such attacks justified. Nielsen (2001) describes religion's role in coping with the attacks using Pargament's theoretical framework. He discusses some steps that individuals can take to deal constructively with the situation. Schbley (2000) discusses the changing profile of Lebanon's religious terrorists. She attempts to empirically assess some elements of Hizbullah and the effect of newly found wealth, money and family exigencies on the Lebanese Shi'a's religious zealotry and his or her perceived religious commitments on their acts of terrorism. Schbley hypothesized that the level of personal wealth of a religious zealot, whose membership in a religious terrorist organization and religious fervor persist unchanged, is inversely related to the level of his or her affinity for martyrdom. Schbley's research stresses that the well-established Hizbullah cell organizations that protect each and every element and coordinate with other terrorist organizations are ripe to be exploited for international criminal activities. More importantly, Schbley attempts to explain and delineate the process by which nations may manage, control, reform, or even eliminate such international affliction. She concludes that Hizbullah in Lebanon, an organization originally established as a religious network with narrowly defined politico-socioeconomic goals, has eroded.
White (2001) explores apocalyptic theology in four American extremist religions: Christian Identity; Nordic Christianity and Odinism; violent, 'freewheeling' fundamentalism; and Creatorism. He argues that violent eschatology interacts with criminology in the sense that politicized religions produce criminal behavior and, at times, terrorism. He presents a brief history of the relationship between religion and racist violence as well as an analysis of the social factors that produce political eschatology. White concludes with an examination of religious terrorism and technological weapons. He suggests that mass destruction is the greatest threat of religiously motivated terrorism.
Bioterrorism
The use of biological weapons in times of war has a long and detailed history in the 20th century. Today, analysts, law enforcement, and intelligence experts suggest that biological weapons may be used to cause mass illness and death by terrorists domestically and internationally. In fact, an incident of biological terrorism was perpetrated on the citizens of a rural Oregon community in 1984 (Kuhr and Hauer, 2001). Government agencies at the local, state, and federal levels must establish programs to detect natural or intentional epidemics early so as to afford the maximum protection of citizens by way of mass prophylaxis and mass medical care.
With the national and world situation being where it has been in recent years, the psychological implications of chemical and biological weapons have become important issues. The now routine journalistic association between chemical and biological weapons and the word terror confirms that the purpose of these weapons is to wreak destruction via psychological means by inducing fear, confusion, and uncertainty in everyday life. These effects will take two forms: acute and long term. The general level of malaise, fear, and anxiety may remain high for years, exacerbating pre-existing psychiatric disorders and further heightening the risk of mass sociogenic illness (Wessely, Craig and Bartholomew, 2001). The current uncertainty over the chronic health effects of low level exposure to toxic agents may further increase anxiety in the affected communities. Wessely, Craig and Bartholomew (2001) suggest that unconfirmed or controversial hypotheses about the health effects of exposure to chemical and biological weapons will probably become contentious scientific and media issues in the years ahead.
PTSD
Like many people in the US and internationally, Scurfield (2002), a third generation Syrian American, a Viet Nam Veteran, and a social worker who has worked with PTSD was profoundly affected by the terrorist attacks on September 11th and the massive deaths in New York City, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania. The unprecedented numbers of innocent people murdered and the massive media coverage combined to form an extraordinarily indelible imprint on hundreds of millions of people worldwide. Scurfield has attempted to identify (a) the range of normal and expectable reactions to the acts that have been and are being experienced by millions of Americans, especially those who were distant from the trauma sites, and (b) the relationship between people's personal reactions to the acts and several related social and national policy issues and choices Americans are facing.
Gidron (2002) examined the prevalence and risk factors of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after terrorist attacks. He presents a published intervention study, and proposes an alternative evidenced-based intervention. Based on the studies reviewed, the prevalence of PTSD after terrorist attacks worldwide is estimated to be approximately 28% (Gidron, 2002). Citizens appear to have a considerably higher prevalence rate than security forces. Many inconsistences exist in relation to the risk factors of PTSD after terrorist attacks. Their further identification may help direct scarce mental-health personnel to terrorist attack survivors in greatest need of preventive therapy. Standardized assessments before and after treatment need to be incorporated to assess the effects of interventions, and use of evidence-based psychotherapies is strongly recommended.
Pfefferbaum et al (2001a) describes traumatic grief in 40 individuals (21-73 yrs old) who suffered losses in the 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City. They administered a self-report instrument six months after the bombing to assess demographics; exposure; injury; retrospective report of initial emotional and physiological reaction; and current posttraumatic stress symptoms, grief, safety concerns, and functioning. A strong association was found between posttraumatic stress symptoms and grief. The relationship between grief and difficulty functioning was stronger at higher levels of posttraumatic stress than at lower levels. The results support the construct of traumatic grief and have important implications for the treatment of people exposed to large-scale traumatic events and for the training of mental health professionals.
Findings from a study of 27 victims (mean age 41 yrs) of the Oklahoma City bombing focused on the importance of subjective appraisals of coping self-efficacy in predicting psychological distress following this tragedy (Benight et al, 2000)). Results supported the hypothesis that judgments of coping self-efficacy taken two months after the bombing added significantly to the explanation of general and trauma-related distress after controlling for income, social support, threat of death, and loss of resources. Coping self-efficacy judgments taken one year later were also important in explaining psychological distress after controlling for loss of resources and social-support perceptions. Although coping self-efficacy perceptions taken at two months were related to distress levels one year later, they did not remain significant in a regression analysis controlling for loss of resources and income. These findings have implications for post-terrorist bombing interventions.
Eighty-five adults seeking mental health assistance six months after the Oklahoma City bombing were assessed to determine which of three groups of variables (exposure, peri-traumatic responses, and social support) predicted development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms (Tucker et al, 2001). Variables most highly associated with subsequent PTSD symptoms included having been injured (among exposure variables), feeling nervous or afraid (peri-traumatic responses), and responding that counseling helped (support variables). Combining primary predictors in the three areas, PTSD symptoms were more likely to occur in those reporting counseling to help and those feeling nervous or afraid at the time of the bombing. Implications of these findings are discussed for behavioral health administrators and clinicians planning service delivery to groups of victims seeking mental health intervention after terrorist attacks and other disasters.
The role of psychiatry in dealing with the aftermath of the September 11 World Trade Center tragedy is another area of importance. Many people are complaining of nightmares, flashbacks, insomnia, traumatic grief, emotional numbing, depression, and avoidance (LeDoux and Gorman, 2001) . Experience with previous disasters may not prove informative in the present context for at least two reasons. First, the magnitude of this tragedy dwarfs all others in American history. Second, the trauma is not time limited but is persisting long after the initial incident as a result of continued threats by terrorist groups, military action, and by the availability--in fact, unavoidability--of information about the events from the media. Basic science supports the suggestion of turning avoidance of situations that lead to the arousal of fear and anxiety into a successful coping strategy, in which thoughts and behaviors serve to terminate exposure to the conditioned stimulus but at the same time keep the individual engaged with life. While this and other psychosocial interventions should be the mainstay of treatment for these trauma victims, antidepressants should also be considered as part of the therapy.
Jehel et al (2001) conducted a prospective study of (1) the psychological impact of a terrorist attack and (2) the predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Ss were 111 male and female adult survivors of a December 1996 terrorist attack in a Paris, France subway. PTSD rates, the relationship between PTSD and coping style, and the effect of PTSD on health care utilization were assessed at six and eighteen months. Follow-up questionnaires were sent during months six and seven. Ss were administered the General Health Questionnaire at the beginning of the study, the Ways of Coping Check List (P. P. Vitaliano et al, 1985) at six months, and the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations at eighteen months. The results indicate that Ss who were hospitalized for more than two days immediately after the attack presented significantly lower PTSD scores at six months than other Ss. Ss with a high PTSD score at six months had a higher risk than other Ss of having a high PTSD score at eighteen months. Ss who experienced another traumatic event after December 1996 had a higher eighteen month PTSD score than other Ss. The findings underline the importance of early diagnosis and early medical and psychological help for victims.
Vila et al (2000) presents a clinical case of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) by indirect exposure to the trauma and data from follow-up in a department of child psychiatry on 10 of 29 children who were taken hostage and their parents. These children--directly exposed to the aggression--and their parents-- indirectly exposed since they were not taken hostage but had a great empathy--were examined to assess mental disorders using DSM-IV diagnostic criteria. Children were assessed also with self-administered questionnaires for anxiety and traumatic stress. Nine pupils presented a PTSD, incomplete or full syndrome. In five families (50%), the parents had post-traumatic disorders: seven fathers or mothers. One mother had an acute stress disorder; another had an adaptation disorder with antidepressive symptoms and symptoms of PTSD. Their results demonstrate the reality of PTSD by indirect exposure. From a nosological point of view, they raise the question of the limits of the concept of traumatic stress. From a practical point of view, when a child has been directly victim of an aggression, it seems important to examine also his parents and siblings, who are indirectly exposed and may induce or maintain post-traumatic disorders of the child, particularly when other risk factors are present.
Treatment
Little empirical research has been done to examine the effects that working with traumatized individuals has had on their therapists. It is known that mental health professionals often do suffer ill effects, especially symptoms of secondary traumatic stress disorder. Landry (2001) tested predictors of secondary traumatic stress disorder in the therapists who provided services for the Oklahoma City bombing. Predictors were therapist social network involvement, years of counseling experience, and amount of self-reported empathy experienced from others. Indicators of secondary traumatic stress were the Frederick Reaction Index-A, the Compassion Fatigue Self-test for Helpers, and the SCL-90R. Hypotheses were tested using a series of hierarchical multiple regressions. Results demonstrated no significance for years of experience or social network, but perceived empathy accounted for eleven percent of the variance on the SCL-90 and the Compassion Fatigue Self-test for Psychotherapists with social network and years of experience controlled.
Silver and Rogers (2002) note that the effects of war and terrorism can be long-lasting and discreet, emerging years later in different forms of psychological and physical strain in the body. In this work, they uncover how developments in Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) can be successfully applied to the treatment of war and terrorism trauma. They address issues confronted by all clinicians attempting to respond to this particular type of trauma--the psychological aftermath of man's inhumanity to man. Silver and Rogers focus on the application of EMDR to clients' traumatic experiences, covering a wide range of traumatic settings and survivors from school violence to "near-war" experiences, refugees, combat soldiers, children, and emergency service workers. They provide a review of the research on the use of EMDR, specific case studies to demonstrate their results as well as general suggestions for integrating EMDR into the therapeutic process. They suggest that this book can be used as a general reference for all practitioners looking to broaden their understanding and care of trauma patients.
Summary and Conclusions
Mahmood (2001) notes that "terrorism" like "witchcraft," is a concept that anthropology can aid in deconstructing. The mythos of "the terrorist" has become part of the political drama of our time despite a lack of concreteness in its definition. Drawing on a decade of ethnographic research with Sikh separatists, Mahmood focuses on how the imagining of terror has replaced the reality of armed conflict among the Sikhs in Western legal and policy settings. Specific examples of anthropological intervention in this arena illustrate how face-to-face knowledge can contribute to greater accuracy in judicial and legislative decisions regarding terrorism. Given the life-and-death importance of these decisions, anthropologists of conscience are called on to offer the grassroots perspective they have as policies are developed nationally and internationally, bringing the concrete realism of ethnography into courtrooms, halls of parliaments, and executive offices around the world.
Despite pundit hysteria and media hype, the actual threat of terrorism has shrunk in recent years. The decline, which commenced during the late 1980s, includes reductions in the number of incidents, groups, and fatalities. Although the 1990s saw a significant increase in the number of people injured in terrorist attacks, less than 1% of the incidents caused more than 70% of the injuries (Johnson, 2001). Radical Islamic groups account for only a small percentage of terrorist attacks but are disproportionately responsible for casualties. The decline and containment of terrorism hinges on the reluctance of states to sponsor terrorist attacks, the spread of democracy, and more effective anti- and counter-terrorist methods.
There are parallels between the violence that is inflicted by a tyrant within a family and the violence that terrorists inflict on the larger community. After comparing and contrasting the two types of violence, Cox (2001) mentions some existing support groups (such as Parents of Murdered Children) and states a need for special support to be offered to all survivors of violence.
No one can predict the future. The study of futures research, however, offers insights that may assist in foreseeing certain trends that will affect future events. Jensen (2001) employs a modified version of one futures research methodology, cross-impact analysis, to study the interactions of four trends that will likely influence the future of international terrorism: the expanded use of the Internet on the international level, the effects of emerging ethnic and religious sensibilities, the growing economic gap between the rich and the poor, and the continued role of the United States as the world's predominant superpower.
In conclusion, it is critical, even for clinicians who practice in regions that are far from the recent attacks, to be prepared to assist people with trauma-related symptoms of stress.
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REFERENCES For References for this article, CLICK HERE
To search for books on disasters and disaster mental
health topics, leaders, leadership, orgainizations,
crisis intervention, leaders and crises, and related
topics and purchase them online, go to the following url:
https://www.angelfire.com/biz/odochartaigh/searchbooks.html
RECOMMENDED READING
In the Wake of 9/11: The Psychology of Terror
by Thomas A. Pyszczynski, Sheldon Solomon, Jeff Greenberg, Jeff Greenburg
Book Description
This unique book explores the emotions of despair, fear, and anger that arose after the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in the Autumn of 2001. The authors analyze reactions to the attacks through the lens of terror management theory, a psychological model that explains why humans react the way they do to the threat of death. The theory provides ways to understand and reduce terrorism’s effect and possibly find resolutions to conflicts involving terrorism. The authors focus primarily on the reaction in the United States to the 9/11 attack, but their model is applicable to all instances of terrorism, and they expand their discussion to include the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
This fascinating book has practical implications and will be an irreplaceable resource for mental health practitioners, researchers, and anyone concerned with the causes and effects of terrorism **********************************************************************
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Contact your local Mental Health Center or
check the yellow pages for counselors, psychologists,
therapists, and other Mental health Professionals in
your area for further information.
**********************************************************************
George W. Doherty
Rocky Mountain Region
Disaster Mental Health Institute
Box 786
Laramie, WY 82073-0786
MENTAL HEALTH MOMENT Online: https://www.angelfire.com/biz3/news
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