Learning From The Past and Planning For The Future
MENTAL HEALTH MOMENT December 12, 2003 "I have never accepted what many people have kindly said—namely that I inspired the nation.
Their will was resolute and remorseless, and as it proved, unconquerable. It fell to me to express it." - Winston Churchill - on his 80th birthday, address to Parliament 11/30/54
Short Subjects
LINKS Rocky Mountain Region
Disaster Mental Health Institute
CONFERENCES AND WORKSHOPS:
CALL FOR PAPERS:
CONFERENCE ON RURAL CRISIS INTERVENTION
AND CURRENT STATE OF CISM/CISD
Middle East/North Africa Regional
Conference of Psychology
December 13 - 16, 2003
Location: Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Contact: Dr. Raymond H. Hamden
MENA RCP, PO Box 11806
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Phone: +971-4- 331-4777
Fax: +971-4-331-4001
E-mail: menarcp@hotmail.comSociety of Australasian
Social Psychologists 33rd Annual Meeting
April 15 - 18, 2004
Location: Auckland, NEW ZEALAND
27th National AACBT Conference
(Australian Association for
Cognitive and Behavior Therapy)
May 15 - 19, 2004
Location: Perth, Western Australia
AUSTRALIA
Society of Australasian Social Psychologists
33rd Annual Meeting
April 15 - 18, 2004
Location: Auckland, NEW ZEALAND
Contact: SASP@auckland.ac.nz
Deadline for submissions: 1 February 2004WFPHA 10th International Congress on
Public Health: Sustaining Public Health
in a Changing World: Vision to Action
April 19-22, 2004
Location: Brighton, ENGLAND
Contact: Allen K. Jones, PhD
Secretary General World Federation of
Public Health Associations
Email: stacey.succop@apha.orgHawaii International Conference on Education
January 3-6, 2004
Location: Honolulu Hawaii, USA
Email: education@hiceducation.orgXIV. IFTA World Family Therapy Congress
March 24 - 27, 2004
Location: Istanbul, TURKEY
14th Biennial Meeting of the Society
for Research in Human Development
(formerly the Southwestern Society for
Research in Human Development -- SWSRHD)
April 1 - 3, 2004
Location: Park City, Utah, USA
7th European Conference on Psychological Assessment
April 1 - 4, 2004
Location: Malaga, SPAIN
Contact: Antonio Godoy
Facultad de Psicologia
Universidad de Malaga
29071 Malaga.( SPAIN)
Tel. (34) 952 13 25 32
Fax (34) 95213 11 00
Email: godoy@uma.esAnnual Conference Society for
Industrial/Organizational Psychology (SIOP)
April 2 - 4, 2004 Location: Chicago, Illinois, USA
Email: lhakel@siop.bgsu.edu
$153 Million For Food And Shelter Program
The U.S. Department of Homeland Security’s Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) announced today that federal funds totaling $153 million have been awarded to help feed and shelter the nation’s hungry and homeless people in 2004. For the Full Story, go to: http://www.fema.gov/news/newsrelease.fema?id=9122 Fact Sheet: http://www.fema.gov/news/newsrelease.fema?id=9121
Round Twenty-Five Of The Assistance To Firefighters Grants To Aid America's Fire Departments Is Announced
Michael D. Brown, Under Secretary of Homeland Security for Emergency Preparedness and Response, announced another 177 grants to fire departments this week in round twenty-five of the 2003 Assistance to Firefighters Grant (AFG) Program. Since June, over 6600 fire departments have received almost $495 million to support their role as first responders in the neighborhoods and communities they serve as firefighters.
"This direct funding is essential to train and equip our first responders who protect lives and property against all hazards in our communities each day," said Brown. "President Bush, Secretary Ridge and I remain steadfast in our commitment to support America's firefighters and appreciate Congress' leadership in appropriating these grant monies."
Wyoming Recipients Colorado Recipients New Mexico Recipients Arizona Recipients Utah Recipients Nevada Recipients Idaho Recipients Montana Recipients
Disaster Funds Authorized For Virgin Islands Flood Recovery
The head of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security’s Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) announced today that President Bush has authorized the use of federal disaster funds for the U.S. Virgin Islands to help local governments recover from the effects of flooding rains that struck the territory last month. For the Full Story, Go To: http://www.fema.gov/news/newsrelease.fema?id=8951
Puerto Rico: Tormentas Severas, Inundaciones, Deslices de Lodo y de Tierra Declarado el 21 de noviembre de 2003
http://www.fema.gov/spanish/about/process/index_spa.shtm
Middle East Road Map is distressed, but far from dead, says Annan
The Road Map peace plan for the Middle East is in distress, but it is not dead, and a new mood in the region could inspire the leaders of Israel and the Palestinians to get back to the negotiating table, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan said. For the Full Story, Go To: http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=9181&Cr=middle&Cr1=east
UN calls on Coalition forces in Afghanistan to learn from deaths of 15 children
11 December – The senior United Nations official in Afghanistan said today he hoped lessons would be learned from the killing of 15 children in two raids by the United States-led Coalition forces in Afghanistan and “these tragic situations are not repeated.” For the Full Story, go to: http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=9182&Cr=afghan&Cr1=
End discrimination against girls in education for sake of world development - UN
Warning that none of the world’s development goals can be reached without significant progress in girls’ education, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) today issued an urgent call for change in international development efforts which it says “are drastically short-changing” hundreds of millions of girls. For the Full Story, go to: http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=9176&Cr=unicef&Cr1=
With UNICEF help, teens show girls in Uganda, Pakistan the way to school
Two years ago, 15-year-old Shamim Cairo Atwine signed up for the Girls' Education Movement (GEM), an initiative launched in 2001 by the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) in her native Uganda, hoping to help other girls get into school, improve their study habits and gain the same confidence that she has learned from the club. For the Full Story, go to: http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=9178&Cr=unicef&Cr1=
World population likely to be about nine billion by 2300 - UN projections
The world's population in 2300 is likely to be around nine billion, lower than previous long-range forecasts, while the population will continue to age rapidly thanks to improving longevity, according to groundbreaking new projections released today by the United Nations population arm. For the Full Story, go to: http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=9136&Cr=population&Cr1=
Climate change causing thousands of deaths, says UN report
Climate change is affecting human health, causing 150,000 deaths worldwide in 2000, according to a United Nations report issued today, together with guidelines offering governments and organizations practical advice on how to respond to the problems. For the Full Story, go to: http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=9179&Cr=health&Cr1=
Beyond Depression: The Somatic/Affective Interface
Somatic symptoms are often present in depression and may be the primary presenting problem in some individuals. Optimal treatment and functioning of the individual are compromised unless both areas are included in the overall treatment. For the Article, go to: http://www.medscape.com/viewprogram/2170
FOCUS ON ADHD
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) affects 3% to 5% of all children and possibly as many as 2 million American children, and ADHD often continues into adolescence and adulthood. Medscape's ADHD Resource Center provides the latest news and clinical information on diagnosing and treating this disorder. For More Information, go to: http://www.medscape.com/pages/editorial/resourcecenters/public/adhd/rc-adhd.ov
Who First Suggests the Diagnosis of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder?
Few published studies have attempted to delineate the process by which children are diagnosed and treated for ADHD in community settings, as opposed to the setting of the referral clinic. In addition, there are few, if any, published studies that attempt to determine, on a regional or national basis, how often and to what extent teacher recommendations and parental preferences play a role in the diagnosis or treatment of ADHD. For the article, go to: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/461776
Clinical Course of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder From Childhood Toward Early Adolescence
The literature is presently unclear about the natural history of ADHD, and there are many differences in reported remission rates. The authors of this study sought to characterize syndromal and behavioral changes in presentation for a cohort of children diagnosed with ADHD and followed up prospectively into adolescence. For the article, go to: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/462632_3
THE MEDICAL MINUTE: DON'T LEAVE COMMON SENSE OUT IN THE COLD
Although it's not winter yet, snow is here and many of us have already been clearing our sidewalks and driveways of white stuff. It's no exaggeration to say it's real work to shovel snow. According to the latest edition of the Medical Minute, a service of Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, shoveling snow is like jogging a 12-minute mile for our hearts -- not a competitive speed, but stressful if you have heart disease and are not used to that much exercise. If the air is very cold, the stress level is even higher. Plus, there are dangers associated with improper shoveling technique, carelessness around snow blowers, falls on ice, frostbite and hypothermia. However, with a few precautions, you can still enjoy the winter wonderland and clear walks. Read the full story at http://live.psu.edu/story/4982
MORALE, DEPLOYMENT AND STRESS: BRIEF BACKGROUND AND REVIEW
What is Morale?
Manning (1991) defines morale as a function of cohesion and esprit de corps. There is a distinct national character for each nation. It affects the ways in which an army fights and can affect the outcomes of battles. Knowledge of the enemy's national character can help commanders and planners determine the outcome of any given battle (Labuc, Stasiu, 1991). Stewart (1991) examined the cohesion, morale, motivation, and unit performance of both sides in the Falklands conflict. Based on face-to-face interviews with British and Argentine officers, NCOs [noncommissioned officers], and enlisted personnel, she explains the successes and failures of land forces during the 1982 campaign. She shows clearly that cohesion is indeed a "force multiplier" and in many instances determines small units' ability to stand and fight.
History
Seidule (1997) examined the morale of the American Expeditionary Forces during World War I to determine its competence. When examining morale military psychologists cite the importance of three factors: cohesion, esprit de corps, and biological and psychological needs such as health, rest, and nutrition. Morale, however, has more to it than the battlefield determinants, particularly in World War I. Societal values also played a key role. Officers and soldiers came into the army with idealistic and romantic expectations of war and service. Those expectations were particularly strong because the army used conscription without sufficient training to overcome pre-war perceptions. The morale of the AEF was poor. Poor morale served as both an indicator of inferior battlefield performance and a factor in the Americans' tactical problems. The sorry state of the AEF in November, 1918 would probably have precluded it from continuing to fight into Germany in 1919. Studying morale provides an evaluation of an army at the tactical level by assessing more than just tactics. In the case of the AEF, poor morale was a cause and a symptom of tactical ineffectiveness (Seidule,1997).
Keene (1994) reviewed the broad agenda pioneering military psychologists during World War I set for themselves in studying problems relating to the psychology of the soldier. Psychologists in the newly created Morale Division, for example, initiated rudimentary studies on issues that would become staples of 20th-century military psychology. These included the adjustment of recruits to Army life, the effectiveness of Army propaganda in changing attitudes, the reasons soldiers desert, and the impact of military service on civilian soldiers. By encouraging military policymakers to consider the importance of soldier psychology in a mass army, the Morale Division introduced a new and somewhat controversial perspective into the organization. Consequently, plans to develop soldier morale were integral to the interwar mobilization plans prepared by the Army War College, considerations notably absent in 1917.
From the outset of the Second World War Canadians wanted to avoid the horrors encountered on the western front in 1914-18. The most significant was "shell shock." Most medical personnel preferred not to assign to combat those who showed neurotic symptoms during training, but this approach was challenged by the Canadian Psychological Association and by the new Personnel Selection Directorate established in 1941 (Copp & McAndrew, 1990). Personnel Selection claimed to be able to distinguish, before training, between those suited and those unsuited to combat duty. When Canadian troops went into battle in Italy, however, the preparatory work seemed to have had little impact. Canadian losses due to "battle exhaustion" were no less than those of other allied forces. Front-line treatment allowed about half of those affected to return to their units. Eventually, however, a very large number of soldiers were assigned to non-combat roles because it was judged they could no longer function effectively in battle. Copp and McAndrew (1990) are critical of military commanders who thought strict discipline coupled with high morale from good training and success in battle would keep battle exhaustion in check, and of officers in the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps who tried to impose theoretical solutions that did not fit the circumstances. The authors suggest that some doctors, using energy and common sense, contributed to the evolution of contemporary psychiatric ideas about the realities of large-scale psychological casualties.
Suicide can sometimes be the result of lowered morale, but also may be a result of training and expectations. Suzuki (1991) discusses two facets of an American program to prevent suicide among the Japanese during WWII. One was a research component in the Foreign Morale Analysis Division (FMAD), a subunit of the Office of War Information. The principal FMAD researcher on Japanese suicide and ways to prevent suicide among the Japanese military was the anthropologist R. Benedict, assisted by a Japanese-American aide, R. Hashima. The second facet was the suicide prevention program itself, put into effect toward the end of the war in the battles of Saipan and Okinawa. American GIs used Allied propaganda in an attempt to alter the professed no-surrender policy of Japanese military leaders.
More Recent Changes
US military forces are increasingly involved in a variety of multinational peacekeeping and humanitarian assistance missions. In preparing soldiers for such missions, it is critical that leaders have an understanding of the nature of the stressors. Since the end of the Cold War, nontraditional military missions have increased substantially, whereas armies are being downsized. Survivors of downsizing are being called to do more with less. One example was the unscheduled 1994 deployment of a PATRIOT missile battalion to Korea (Segal, Rohall, Jones & Manos, 1999).
Between 1989 and 1996 the active duty Army was cut from roughly 770,000 to 500,000 personnel, with more cuts to come. Mccormick (1997) evaluated the manner in which the Army has adapted to and been affected by this externally-mandated organizational change. In examining the process of downsizing, he considers several dimensions of military effectiveness. He examines the Army's political effectiveness--the ability of its leadership to articulate the Army's role and to obtain needed resources in an increasingly treacherous political and budgetary environment. He also evaluates the Army's organizational effectiveness, focusing particularly on how the Army personnel community managed the downsizing of the officer corps. He considers the Army's objectives in this process, the appropriateness of these objectives, and the Army's success in achieving them. Finally, he evaluates how downsizing has affected the morale, commitment, attitudes and behavior of the Army officer corps, intangible yet crucial aspects of military effectiveness. The downsizing of the Army is a story of both failure and success. The Army's leadership failed to make a persuasive case to civilian leaders for a larger force and the resources necessary to maintain it. Consequently, other aspects of military effectiveness have been jeopardized. Conversely, the Army's leaders successfully planned and implemented dramatic personnel reductions, particularly within the officer corps. The Army achieved its downsizing objectives and these objectives were for the most part appropriate. But, despite the Army's best efforts, prolonged and incremental downsizing has taken its toll on the officer corps, undermining morale, commitment, and professionalism, and perhaps with this the Army's ability to fight and win future wars. The Army's outdated officer management system and the legislation that governs it have exacerbated these undesirable effects. Mccormick (1997) concludes with suggestions for the reform of these systems in light of the unprecedented challenges brought about by the post Cold War era.
Contemporary organizational theory consistently argues that organization structure can affect the behavior of members of the organization. Research suggests that members of organizations structured in a rigid hierarchy exhibit lower morale, decreased innovation, and lower output when compared to organizations structured less rigidly (White, 1998). While the research is clear on the impact of hierarchical design on overall behavior, it is less clear on the effect that rigid hierarchy may have on ethical behavior. White (1998) investigated the hypothesis that rigid organizational hierarchy inhibits ethical behavior. Ethical behavior was operationalized by applying Kohlberg's model of six moral development stages, and measured by Rest's Defining Issues Test (DIT). The hypothesis was tested by comparing the mean DIT scores of 480 Coast Guard personnel with the means of meta-samples of individuals from less rigid organizations. A military organization, the Coast Guard is a stereotypical rigid hierarchy, with a tall pyramid structure, numerous hierarchical levels, centralized decision making, and an emphasis on obedience and heteronomous behavior. The hypothesis was tested further by comparing DIT scores of Coastguardsmen assigned to large ships with Coastguardsmen assigned to shore units. Because of the extremely regimented routine aboard ships, sailors are allowed little opportunity to act autonomously. It was hypothesized that the DIT scores of seagoing Coastguardsmen would be lower than their counterparts assigned to less rigidly structured shore units. The findings supported the hypothesis that a rigid hierarchy restricts moral development. Coast Guard respondents scored about seven points lower on the DIT than a large adult meta-sample from society-at-large. Sea-based Coastguardsmen scored significantly lower than their shore-based counterparts. This suggests that the extremely rigid hierarchy of the shipboard environment further restricts moral development. This study suggests that an ethical dimension be added to the negative consequences of rigid hierarchy. It also argues that the military, from a moral development perspective, is different from mainstream society, and that the difference is caused primarily by the rigid hierarchy employed by the military. The findings reinforce the need for democratic, civilian supervision of military policy and provide a recommended strategy for accommodating the tensions between rigid hierarchy and moral development.
Deployment Factors Affecting Morale
The US military is increasingly involved in operations that require specially configured task forces that are tailored to the demands of a particular operation. Given the presumed importance of unit cohesion as a social influence on morale, performance, and stress resiliency, a critical question is how cohesion develops in such units. Bartone & Adler (1999) examined cohesion over time in a US Army medical task force that was newly constituted to serve in a United Nations peacekeeping operation in the former Yugoslavia. Survey data from 3 phases of the operation (predeployment, mid-deployment, and late-deployment) suggest that cohesion levels develop in an inverted-U pattern--starting out low, reaching a high point around mid-deployment, and then decreasing again toward the end of the six month mission. ANOVAs comparing work groups or sections within the task force revealed group differences on cohesion, with military police and physicians highest and operating room staff (nurses and technicians) lowest. Situational and home environment stressors correlated negatively with cohesion during predeployment, whereas work relationship problems were stronger (negative) correlates at mid- and late-deployment. Results demonstrate the importance of assessing cohesion across phases of deployment.
Segal, Rohall, Jones & Manos (1999) present data drawn from surveys of soldiers in the first PATRIOT battalion sent to South Korea and of soldiers in the battalion that replaced them. Although both PATRIOT battalions were quite similar in many respects, the soldiers in the first battalion sent to Korea had been told that they would not be deployed again for 2 years, had less warning of their deployment, and had seen more deployments than the second battalion sent to Korea. In both battalions, the best predictor of morale for younger soldiers (E4 and below) was family adjustment to Army life. The best predictor of morale for older soldiers (E5 and above) was leadership support for soldiers. Data revealed that both junior and senior enlisted soldiers in the first battalion had significantly lower morale and family adjustment ratings than the soldiers sent to replace them. Findings reinforce the importance of communication with the survivors of organizational downsizing and consideration of the needs of their families as their jobs undergo restructuring.
Bartone, Adler & Vaitkus (1998) summarize findings from a longitudinal case study of 188 US Army soldiers (the group was 78% male) in a medical unit performing a peacekeeping mission in the former Yugoslavia. The goal was to identify key sources of stress and to delineate the effect of these stressors on the health, morale, and mental readiness of soldiers. Findings suggest a range of psychological stressors varying across operational phases of a peacekeeping mission. The degree of stress experienced in various areas correlates significantly with depression, psychiatric symptoms, and low morale. The range of stressors is summarized in a model of five underlying dimensions of psychological stress salient to soldier adaptation in peacekeeping operations: isolation, ambiguity, powerlessness, boredom, and danger/threat. This model suggests several recommendations for countermeasures that organizational leaders can take to maintain soldier psychological readiness during peacekeeping operations.
"Commuter Wars"
Richard & Huffman (2002) note that the US Air Force has developed a military force that can fight by night and return home by day. This phenomenon of "commuter war" was especially evident during Operation Allied Force over Kosovo. 540 military personnel participating in Operation Allied Force were administered a survey measuring morale, wellness behaviors, and work-family conflict. The deployment had adverse effects on wellness behaviors of permanent party and temporary duty assignment populations. Additionally, levels of morale and motivation varied between the two groups. Permanent party personnel also reported increased rates of work-family conflict. Results suggest that commuter war affects wellness behaviors, morale, and work-family conflicts of military personnel.
Environmental Factors
Bliese & Britt (2001) examined the degree to which individuals' reactions to stressors were influenced by the quality of their shared social environments. Based on social support theory, they proposed that individuals in positive social environments would show lower levels of strain when exposed to stressors than would individuals in negative social environments. The quality of the shared social environment was assessed by measuring the degree of consensus among group members about an issue of importance to the group--namely about the group leadership. Social influence theory provides compelling reasons to believe that this measure of consensus should be a strong indicator of the quality of the social environment within the groups. In multilevel analyses using a sample of 1,923 soldiers who were members of 52 Companies deployed to Haiti, Bliese & Britt found that the quality of the social environment moderated relationships between (1) work stressors and morale and (2) work stressors and depression.
Stress Factors
High levels of stress have been associated with morale and well-being issues among soldiers. Micro factors such as coping and macro factors such as leadership environment and group cohesion have influenced stress levels of soldiers in the work place. Soldiers' self-report of stress levels in relationship to soldiers' perception of leadership, group cohesion and coping was investigated (Arincorayan, 2000). The amount of stress experienced by a soldier was measured by the Brief Symptom Inventory (Derogatis, 1977). Soldiers' perceptions of leadership environment were measured by the vertical cohesion scale (Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 1996). Soldiers' perceptions of group cohesion were measured by the horizontal cohesion scale (Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 1996) and soldiers' perceptions of coping method were measured by the emotion-focused coping sub-scale (Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 1996) and problem-focused sub-scale (Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 1996). A secondary analysis was conducted on data collected from a survey study sample of 1,001 male Non-commissioned officers and enlisted soldiers deployed to Bosnia in March 1997. The results indicated that soldiers' experiencing low levels of stress tended to perceive their leadership environment as positive and peer-relationships as cohesive. Furthermore, soldiers who used emotion-focused coping methods were likely to experience increasing levels of stress. Problem-focused coping had no statistically significant relationship to soldiers stress levels. The findings are congruent with components of human relations theory (Follet, 1933; Barnard, 1938; Fayol, 1949) and transactional theory (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
Frank & Frank (1996) examined the unexplained illnesses that were documented in both veterans of the Persian Gulf War and in soldiers stationed in the Philippines during World War II. In both groups, patients exhibited similar symptoms (including weakness, fatigue, and headaches) that could not be attributed to any one source. Because troops in both settings also experienced intensely confusing and threatening information about their personal safety, they suggest that the symptoms represent physiological reactions to a demoralizing stress.
Wright, Marlowe & Gifford (1996) describe the stresses experienced by soldiers as they prepared for war during Operation Desert Shield, the buildup period to the Persian Gulf War. Information gleaned from interviews conducted during this tense period of uncertainty has provided important data on soldiers' adaptation, morale, cohesion, family (and personal) relationships, and concerns, as well as on potential problems they encountered. This includes observation of the effects of anticipatory stress and its ramifications for groups and individuals. The experiences and perceptions of combat and support units stationed in the Persian Gulf during the early months of the deployment were compared. Their work resulted in information that can present clinical, research, and community-based recommendations that can inform the actions of civic and military leaders, clinicians, and family members during future military contingencies.
Bartone & Ender (1994) review how casualty policies have developed in the US Army, and draw on the Army's casualty experience to suggest some ways in which organizational responses to death might facilitate healthy adjustment for survivors. Military casualty activities serve important social and psychological functions because they impact on individual mental health and unit morale. A variety of studies (e.g., J. W. Pennebaker et al, 1990) have shown that programs/activities that increase a sense of positive meaning regarding trauma and loss can facilitate healthy psychological adjustment for survivors. Casualty workers themselves can benefit from supportive organizational policies.
Armfield (1994) discusses various models for preventing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and examines future directions for PTSD prevention. Historically 10-50% of all casualties result in PTSD. The best treatment suggested by Armfield is rest and ventilation of feelings followed by return to duty and peer group. Preventing the PTSD cycle from starting and thus decreasing psychiatric casualties is reported as feasible. This can be done by promoting unit cohesion and morale, inducing stress during training so individuals will be better prepared to cope, providing realistic information about what to expect in combat, and holding group debriefings immediately after traumatic events. Stress inoculation therapy and critical incident stress debriefing are are recommendations suggested.
Perceptions of Readiness
Shamir, Brainin, Zakay & Popper (2000) conceptualized perceived combat readiness, an important component of morale, in terms of collective efficacy beliefs. They examined some of the anticipated correlates of collective efficacy beliefs as they apply to military combat units. They focused on the following variables: soldiers' experience, leader's tenure, leader's confidence in the unit, soldiers' confidence in the leader, unit discipline, and members' identification with the unit. The study was based on questionnaires given to company leaders ( n = 50), staff members ( n = 353), and two samples of soldiers ( n = 1,197) in 50 Israel Defense Forces companies. All participants were men (aged 18-23 yrs). Some support was found for all hypothesized correlates. The strongest predictor of perceived combat readiness was identification with the unit. The correlation between aggregated staff members' perceptions and aggregated soldiers' perceptions was only modest, suggesting that the two groups may employ different standards to assess the combat readiness of their units.
West, Mercer & Altheimer, (1993) examined the relationship of cohesion among members of a platoon leadership team to subordinate attitudes and performance, and the degree of consensus among squad members and their leaders regarding the leadership team's cohesiveness. Data from 1,281 military personnel from 60 light infantry platoons indicate that squad members' perceptions of leadership team cohesion (LC) were significantly related (at both individual and unit levels) to their cohesion, organizational identification, job involvement, task motivation, career intent, and perceptions of unit effectiveness. They were also related to ratings of performance in simulated combat. Regression revealed LC to be beneficial over and above the perceived quality of the individual leaders.
Slagle, Reichman, Rodenhauser, Knoedler et al. (1990) interviewed 37 crewmen involved in a nonfatal military aircraft accident, their spouses, fellow squadron members and their spouses, and individuals from the fire crew and control tower on duty during the accident. Ss were aged 18-45 yrs. Questionnaires assessed the presence of intrusive, avoidant, depressive/anxious, and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Spouses reported more symptoms after the accident than their flying husbands; intrusive symptoms were most common. Symptoms were correlated with various perceptions and experiences occurring before and following the accident. Several kinds of symptoms and experiences were significantly correlated with a perception of morale decline.
Preparing for Deployments
Franciskovic, Moro, Ljiljana & Palle-Rotar (1992) describe a 3-day program of psychological preparation for Croatian army soldiers and officers. Soldiers were taught simple techniques to overcome fear and tension in stress situations. Officers were taught to recognize group phenomena, and relations between a leader and the group were emphasized. The role of officers within the group and in the process of creating togetherness was addressed, and the importance of group communication was emphasized. The authors argue that work with officers is important because they are the most important factors in (1) forming cohesive groups of sldiers and (2) strengthening the military morale and efficiency of a brigade. A follow-up analysis of Ss who participated in training showed that strengthening unity within a group of soldiers helped to prevent undesirable psychical reactions to stress during the war.
Utilization of Mental Health Services
Constantian (Dec 1997) examined the need and use of outpatient mental health services by active duty members and active duty family members and to determine if the so-called 'offset effect' could be detected in this population. Using a subset of the worldwide 1994-95 Department of Defense Health Beneficiary Survey numbering over 26,000 observations, several hypotheses were examined resulting in several important findings. First, in spite of expectations of a more mentally fit active duty force, active duty members and family members have approximately the same mental health needs. Moreover, the aggregate mental health need (based on mental health status) was not statistically different from that of the general population. These findings defy the expectation that military members are more mentally fit due to entry level screening and programs designed to boost force morale. Second, DoD beneficiaries exhibit lower levels of usage of mental health services than the general population. The active duty force's underutilization of mental health care is more marked than the underutilization attributable to active duty family members. Paradoxically, the Air Force, the Service with the highest mental health status on average, had the highest mental health utilization rates. The lack of consistency between need for and use of mental health services in the DoD requires further exploration. The underutilization of ambulatory mental health services suggests that programs for expanding access to care should be considered. Expanding access might result in a cost savings if the so-called 'offset effect' was detected in the population, whereby users of mental health care with mental health problems generated fewer costs than non-users of such care because unnecessary physical health visits were reduced. However, no evidence of an offset effect was found in the aggregate or any subgroups examined. Instead, expansion of mental health access to those in need of such care, while perhaps beneficial from a quality of care and force readiness perspective, is unlikely to be beneficial from a financial perspective. The absence of an offset effect means that remedying the mental health underutilization problem will not be accomplished easily or inexpensively.
Families and Morale
Paulus, Nagar, Larey & Camacho (1996) assessed feelings about housing, morale, marital harmony, health, and well-being among 169 Army families living in mobile homes and apartments near a large Army base. Reactions to mobile homes and apartments were similar. Higher quality housing was associated with positive housing ratings but not with more favorable morale, marital harmony, health, or well-being. The experience of housing problems was related to negative housing evaluation, while the experience of Army lifestyle problems was related to lowered morale, harmony, health, and well-being. Results were generally similar for enlisted men and their spouses.
Returning Veterans
West, Mercer & Altheimer (1993) describe the background, objectives, and services of a Department of Veteran's Affairs Social Work Outreach Team's efforts to work with soldiers returning from Operation Desert Storm (ODS). The soldiers experienced discrimination, low morale, sexual harassment, and fear. Many experienced posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and needed crisis intervention. Interventions included individual sessions for support and insight; short-term psychotherapy; and a critical incident stress debriefing model to assess and process traumatic events. The approach used by the outreach team gave social workers an opportunity to take the service to the veteran rather than to wait for the veteran to seek services or be referred. Early recognition of the traumatic experiences helps veterans to seek treatment sooner and to develop an awareness of symptoms of stress in themselves and family members.
Some Conclusions
Some of the important factors and variables related to morale that emerge in most of the above cited studies include: group leadership, health, levels of motivation, mental readiness, force structure, wellness behaviors, debriefings, social environment, work-family factors, family adjustment, unit cohesion, societal values, and others. These factors bear not only on the performance of the military member in the field, but also on his/her relationships with others, post deployment adjustment and family and societal interactions.
With deployments to the current wars in Irag and Afghanistan, issues of morale and unit cohesion will be increasingly important. Effects on families, friends, loved one and the military members themselves will become increasingly evident. Learning from past studies and experiences and providing needed and necessary support for family members and returning military members is crucial. Adequate uses of the debriefing process for military members and information and education sessions for families, friends and communities in general can help ease stressors, mitigate posttraumatic stress, and help with the needed adjustments to changes occurring in all involved.
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REFERENCES Arincorayan, Derrick Felipe Kelii (Oct 2000). Leadership, group cohesion, and coping in relationship to soldiers' stress levels. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities & Social Sciences, Vol 61(4-A), pp. 1610. Publisher: US: University Microfilms International.
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To search for books on disasters and disaster mental
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crisis intervention, leaders and crises, and related
topics and purchase them online, go to the following url:
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RECOMMENDED READING
Psychological and Psychosocial Consequences of Combat and Deployment With Special Emphasis on the Gulf War: With Special Emphasis on the Gulf War (Gulf War Illnesses Series)
by David H. Marlowe, David, H. Marlow
Book Description
Research in the neurosciences has demonstrated that the boundary between the external world (its events, pressures, concerns and stress) and the brain and body has been broken. The concept of anything being "all in the mind" is scientifically and intellectually dead. While some data remain ambiguous and direct causal effect cannot be given to"stress" per se, the overall patterns of research findings demonstrate that stress is a contributing factor to many illnesses, including somatic and psychological symptoms.Therefore, very real onsequences attend those who experience prolonged subacute chronic stress, which characterized in the Gulf deployment, combat, and return home. It is feasible that the effects of these stresses made some soldiers more vulnerable to environmental pathogens, both in the theater and at home, than they would otherwise have been. Thesymptoms of such insults, nested in sociocultural beliefs about illness and the Gulf, might well have amplified deleterious somatic consequences. Like many illnesses, those pertaining to service in the Gulf have been culturally shaped. An illness narrative describes the causes of the illness as perceived by the patient and is most often constructed out ofthe assertions, metaphors, folklore, causal attributions, and adduced causes common in the patient's culture. Other agents of a presumed authorities, the Internet , and support and self-help groups. Such illness narratives can become an important factor in shaping both the nature and interpretation of symptoms by the patient. A cogent, widespread, andwidely shared illness narrative is certainly a characteristic development of Gulf War illness.The threads of combat and deployment stress and the side spectrum of possible responses, as demonstrated throughout history, weaves into the matrix of possible illness causation. It is also possible that a subset of the population is (in some ways, not yet understood) vulnerable and predisposed to injurious responses to the multiple stressors experienced indeployment and combat. This book argues that, to be most helpful to veterans, we must deal with this issue of complexity and not simply focus on a hypothecated or "hoped for" singular cause of Gulf War illlness.
Additional Readings at:
Also try looking here for September 11, 2001: A Simple Account for Children.
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Contact your local Mental Health Center or
check the yellow pages for counselors, psychologists,
therapists, and other Mental health Professionals in
your area for further information.
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George W. Doherty
Rocky Mountain Region
Disaster Mental Health Institute
Box 786
Laramie, WY 82073-0786
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