Introduction To Human Relations

            The study of human relations helps us understand how people fulfill both personal growth needs and organizational goals in their careers. Many organizations are beginning to realize that an employee's life outside the job can have a significant impact on work performance, and some are developing training programs in human relations that address the total person. Increasingly, organizations are discovering that many forces influence the behavior of people at work.

            Human relations is not a set of foolproof techniques for solving people&-related problems. Rather, it gives people an understanding of basic behavior concepts that may enable them to make wiser choices when problems arise, to anticipate or prevent conflicts, and to keep minor problems from escalating into major ones.

            The development of the human relations movement has involved a redefinition of the nature of work and the gradual perception of managers and workers as complex human beings. Two landmarks in the study of motivation and worker needs are 'Frederick Taylor's work in scientific management and Elton Mayo's Hawthorne studies. Many industry leaders predict an increased emphasis on human relations research and application. The reasons for this trend include higher educational of employees and managers, worker organizations pressing for attention to employee concerns, a weakening of the traditional work ethic, and increased federal legislation affecting organizations.

            Seven major themes emerge from a study of human relations: communication, self&-awareness, self&-acceptance, motivation, trust, self&-disclosure, and conflict management. These themes reflect the current concern in human relations with personal growth and satisfaction of organizational objectives.

          Improving Personal and Organizational Communications

                 Impersonal, one&-way communication methods can be effectively used to share basic facts, policies, instructions, and other such information that requires no feedback from the receiver. Interpersonal communication involves a two&-way exchange in which the receiver understands the message in the same way the sender intended it. 

                 Communication is often filtered through semantics, emotions, attitudes, role expectations, and nonverbal messages. Body language conveys information about a person's thoughts and feelings through eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, and use of personal space, or proxemics.

                 Individuals can make their messages clearer by using repetition, avoiding buzz words, using discretion when writing correspondence, and timing the message so that the receiver can focus on what is being said. They can also learn active and empathic listening skills.

                Communication in organizations unifies group behavior and helps build teamwork. Formal communication channels follow the structure of  the organization and can be vertical or horizontal. Informal channels, such as the grapevine, are both vertical and horizontal. The grapevine often transmits information more rapidly and accurately than formal channels but can also have an extremely negative effect on the organization if the rumors are untrue. Organizations can improve their internal communications by creating a climate that encourages upward communication. The integration of international trade and business means that companies must train their employees to be able to communicate in spite of language and cultural differences.

          Attitudes Can Shape Your Life

            An attitude is any strong belief toward people and situations. It is a sate of mind supported by feelings. People possess hundreds of attitudes about work family life, friends, coworkers, and the like.

                   Attitudes represent a powerful force in every organization. If the person employed by a service firm display a caring attitude toward customers, the business will likely enjoy a high degree of customer loyalty and repeat business. If the employees of a manufacturing firm display a serious attitude toward safety rules and regulations, fewer accidents will likely occur.

            People acquire attitudes through early childhood socialization, peer and reference groups, rewards and punishment, role model identification, and cultural influences.

                  Employers value attitudes that show a willingness to exercise self&-leadership to learn, and to be a team player. Employers also appreciate employees who have a concern for health and wellness and an enthusiasm for life and work.

                 Although many factors can influence the formation of an attitude, people do not easily adopt new attitudes or discard old ones. If you choose to, you can change your attitude by altering your thinking; thinking for yourself without undue pressure from your peers, family, and others; and keeping in open mind. You can help others change their attitudes by altering the consequences

and conditions that surround the situation. Positive consequences and conditions produce positive attitudes.

                 Organizations are taking steps to improve the quality of work life of their employees to help them be more productive. Some organizations are adjusting their structures from authoritarian hierarchies to self&-managed teams to help employees achieve greater job satisfaction.

          Building High Self&-Esteem

                Self&-Esteem. is appreciating your own worth and importance. If you have high self&-esteem, you are more likely to feel competent and worthy. If you have low self&-esteem, you are more likely to feel incompetent, unworthy, and insecure. Self&-esteem includes your feelings of adequacy about the roles you play, your personality traits, your physical appearance, your skills, and your abilities. High self&-esteem is the foundation for a successful personal life and professional life.

            A person starts acquiring and building self&-esteem from birth. Parents friends, associates, the media, and professional colleagues all influence the development of that person's self&-esteem. As an adult, a person often defines herself or himself in terms of possessions, jobs, and/or internal values. People with high self&-esteem tend to be future oriented, cope with problems creatively, handle their emotions, and give as well as receive help. They also accept others as unique, talented individuals and exhibit self&-confident behaviors 

            High self&-esteem is essential for success at work. Personal expectations, as well as the expectations of others, have a powerful influence on self&-esteem. These expectations can become self&-fulfilling prophecies. Managers and mentors can strengthen a person's self&-esteem by expressing belief in her or his abilities and talents.

            To build high self&-esteem, individuals must accept the past and build for the future. They have to identify and accept their limitations as well as realize the unique qualities of others. Making decisions and living with the consequences, positive or negative, can also help build self&-esteem. 

            To build self&-esteem, visualize the results you want, and then set goals that will take you where you want to go. Strive toward achieving an internal locus of control. Take control of your thoughts and behavior by consistently monitoring your self&-talk. Many organizations are realizing they need to help build employees self&-esteem and are doing so through training sessions and improvement of the respect given individuals in the workplace.

          Understanding Your Communication Style

                   Communication styles are the patterns of behaviors that are observable to others. Communication style tends to be stable throughout a person's lifetime. Each person has a distinctive way of responding to people and events. Communication style bias is a common problem in organizations and should be viewed as a major barrier to good human relations.

            The communication style model is formed by combining Two important dimensions of human behavior: dominance and sociability. Combinations of these two aspects create four communication styles &- emotive, director, reflective, and supportive. With practice you can learn to identify other people's communication styles. A third dimension of human behavior &- versatility &- is important in dealing with varying communication styles. You can adjust your own style to meet the needs of others &- a process called style flexing.

          Motivating Yourself and Others

             Motivation is a major component of human relations  training because it gives  us a framework for understanding why people do the things they do. In a work  setting, it is what makes people want to work. Internal motivation occurs when the task or duty performed is in itself a reward. External motivation is initiated  by another person and usually involves rewards or other forms of reinforcement for a job well done. Most authorities on motivation recommend that organizations attempt to provide their employees with a mix of external rewards and internal satisfaction.

            People are motivated by different needs. The motivational cycle describes the steps an individual goes through in satisfying a felt need. Motives are individualistic and can change over the years. Because there is no valid measure of  a person's motives, motives can only be inferred. Motives vary in strength and importance and are therefore hierarchical. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory states that psychological needs will come first, followed by safety and security,  social, esteem, and then self&-actualization needs. According to Maslow, although any need can be a motivator, only higher&-order needs will motivate  people over the long run.

                  Managers must accomplish their goals through and with other people, and they are primarily responsible for motivating their subordinates. McGregor's  Theory X and Theory Y reflect a pessimistic and an optimistic view of human behavior, respectively. Theory X managers believe that employees do not really  want to work and can be motivated to do so only through close supervision and the threat of punishment. Theory Y managers attempt to understand what truly motivates employees and give them due respect and consideration.

            William Ouchi formulated a third theory, Theory Z, which describes another management style. This style, based on a model used by many successful Japanese companies, emphasizes treatment of employees like a family, lifetime employment, group decision making, and loyalty to the company. This management  style has been found to satisfy both lower&-level and higher&-level needs.

                 Contemporary organizations attempt to motivate their employees through job design modifications, intrapreneurial incentives, training and education, incentives, and empowerment.

          Personal and Organizational Values: Making The Best Ethical Choices

            A strong sense of character grows out of your personal standards of behavior. It is based on your internal values and your judgment of what is right and what is wrong. Your values are the personal worth or importance you assign to an object or idea. People's values systems serve as the foundation for their attitudes, preferences, opinions, and behaviors.

                  Personal values are largely formed early in life and are influenced by family religious upbringing, schools, the media, and changes in society's values. Simon, Howe, and Kirschenbaum suggests you can learn a valuing process to help clarify your values. This process includes five dimensions: thinking, feeling, communicating, choosing, and acting. Milton Rokeach has written that values can be categorized as terminal or instrumental. Most people's value systems are oriented toward ideas, people, or things.

            Internal value conflicts involve choices between strongly held values. Value conflicts with others, often based on age, racial, religious, gender, or ethnic differences, require skilled intervention before they can be resolved. 

                 Corporate values act as standards for behavior, goal setting, and strategic decision making. They also have an impact on human relations within the organization. They are strongly influenced by top management, which plays a significant role in setting the corporate climate by exemplifying and communicating it to others. By establishing strong corporate values, however, organizations may risk obsolescence, resistance to change, and inconsistencies among various departments.

            Shared values unify employees in an organization by providing guidelines for behavior and decisions. Employees can choose the career and the organization that best suit their needs by ensuring that their personal values are compatible with the values of the organization in which they work. 

                Corporate values and ethics on both the domestic and international levels are receiving increasing attention. As multinational organizations increase in number, the individuals involved will need to consciously examine their values and ethical standards to deal effectively with the differing value structures in each country. Top management, governments, and the public are holding organizations more accountable for their actions than in the past.

          Constructive Self&-Disclosure

            Open communication is an important key to personal growth and job satisfaction. Self&-disclosure&-the process of letting another person know what you think, feel, or want&-promotes communication within an organization. It differs from self&-description in that it usually involves some risk. Most  people want and need accurate feedback from coworkers and the person who supervises their work.

                Constructive self&-disclosure can result in many rewards to people and organizations. It can pave the way for increased accuracy in communication, reduction of stress, increased self&- awareness, and stronger interpersonal relations.

            The Johari Window helps conceptualize four kinds of information areas involved in communication: the open area, what you and others know about you; the blind area, what others know about you that you don't know about yourself; the hidden area, what you know but others do not; and the unknown area, what neither you nor others know. Most people gradually increase the open area as they learn to communicate with others. 

                 Everyone can learn how to use self&-disclosure in a constructive way. Your goal should always be to approach self&-disclosure with the desire to improve your relationship with the other person. Describe your feelings and emotions accurately, and avoid making judgments about the other person. Disturbing

situations should be discussed as they happen; it is difficult to recapture feelings once they have passed. Select the right time and place to share your thoughts and avoid inappropriate disclosure of highly emotional or intimate information.

            A climate of trust serves as a foundation for self&-disclosure. In the absence of trust, people usually avoid revealing their thoughts and feelings to others. Self&-disclosure is also more apt to take place within an organization when people feel comfortable stepping outside their assigned roles and displaying openness for the feelings of others than when they do not.

            Lack of familiarity can be a barrier to constructive self&-disclosure. To the extent that you remain a mystery, other people may decide the risks of  self&-disclosure are too high. The old saying that "familiarity breeds contempt" is simply a myth. Too much distance between people can set the stage for mutual distrust.

            As with learning any new skill, you can improve your ability to disclose your thoughts and feelings by starting with less threatening disclosures and proceeding slowly to more challenging situations. 

          Learning to Achieve Emotional Control

                 Throughout life your behavior is influenced by the conscious and the subconscious parts of your mind. The conscious part is the mental activity you are aware and can control. The subconscious part of your mind has been described by William Menninger as a "storehouse of forgotten memories." It ismental activity that goes on without your knowledge.

                 Research conducted by Eric Berne helps us understand the influence of subconscious mental activity. He developed transactional analysis, a way of analyzing the transactions that take place when two people meet. Berne discovered that everyone's personality is composed of three distinct parts called "ego states": Parent, Child, and Adult. People do not remain permanently fixed in any of these ego states but may fluctuate from one to another depending on the situation.

            The contacts you have with people at work involve a series of transactions between ego states. With practice you can learn to analyze transaction is one that determine which of your ego states (Parent, Adult, or Child) is speaking and which ego state the other person is using.

                       Transactions between people can be classified into three major categories: complementary, crossed, and ulterior. A complementary transaction is one that occurs when a message, sent from a specific ego state, gets the predicated or desired response from a specific ego state in the other person. A crossed transaction occurs when the sender of the message does not get the response that was expected or desired. An ulterior transaction occurs when the message says one thing but has another meaning. Both crossed and ulterior transactions often cause breakdowns in communication. Making the correct response to each transaction requires considerable control over your emotions. Emotional maturity is an important key to success at work.

          The Power of Positive Reinforcement

            People usually feel good when their accomplishments are recognized and conversely become upset when work well done is ignored. Positive reinforcement, when used correctly to reward accomplishments, is a powerful motivator. Everyone needs to receive personal recognition and to feel important.

                  Although many studies indicate that recognition is an important employee reward preference, often ranked higher than monetary rewards and job security, many people seem unable or unwilling to reward a job well done. Confirmation behaviors must be used in organizational settings more often. Praise, simple courtesy, active listening, written thank&-you notes, incentives, and awards represent some of the ways we can reinforce another's behavior.

                   Preoccupation with self is a major obstacle to providing reinforcement to others. Self&-centered persons are more apt to overlook the accomplishments of other people. Another obstacle is the view that "employees are hire to do a job, and they don't deserve any rewards beyond the paycheck." Some managers say a busy schedule does not allow time to give recognition to others. These and other barriers tend to minimize the use of positive reinforcement.

          The Power of Positive Impressions

            People tend to form impressions of others quickly at the time they first meet them, and these first impressions tend to be preserved. Leonard and Natillie Zunin describe the four&-minute barrier as the average time people spend together before a relationship is either established or denied. In an organizational setting, the time interval is often reduced to seconds. Positive impressions are important because they contribute to repeat business and referrals from customers.

            The impression you form of another person during the initial contact is made up of assumptions and facts. When meeting someone for the first time, people tend to rely heavily on assumptions. Many of your assumptions can be traced to early cultural influences. Assumptions are also based on perceptions of surface language. The Zunins describe surface language as a pattern of immediate impressions conveyed by appearance. The clothing and jewelry you wear, your hair style, and the fragrances you use all combine to make a statement about yourself to others.

            Image consultants contend that discrimination on the basis of appearance is still a fact of life. The clothing you wear is an important part of the image you communicate to others. Four factors tend to influence your choice of clothing for work: (1) the products or services offered by the employer, (2) the type of person served, (3) the &- desired image projected by the organization, and (4)  the region where you work.

            In addition to clothing, research indicates that facial expressions strongly influence people's reactions to each other. The expression on your face can quickly trigger a positive or negative reaction. Similarly, your entrance and carriage, voice, handshake, and manners also contribute to the image you project when meeting others.

          Team Building: A Leadership Strategy

                Teamwork ensures not only that a job gets done but also that it gets done efficiently. Therefore, successful teamwork can often make the difference between the profitable and the unprofitable operation of an organization. The team&-building leadership style is effective because it is suited to the needs of most of today's employees.

            An effective work team tends to be informal and relaxed, with no obvious tensions. People are involved, interested, and anxious to participate in solving work&-related problems. An effective work group also has clearly understood goals and objectives.

            Two important dimensions of supervisory leadership contribute to team building. One of these dimensions, consideration, reflects the extent to which a supervisor maintains relationships with employees that are characterized by mutual trust, respect, and rapport. The other dimension, structure, reflects the extent to which a supervisor is likely to direct group activities through planning, goal setting, communication, scheduling, and evaluating. The managerial Grid helps clarify these two dimensions of leadership.

                    Members of an effective work group should assume effective leadership and membership roles. Each helps the group achieve its mission. Everyone assumes the role of team builder.

                  Employees are in a unique position to give guidance and support to their supervisor or manage. Most bosses need this assistance and support to achieve success. To manage the relationship with your boss, it is first necessary to understand him or her. Next, you must assess your own strengths and try to identify personal characteristics that might impede or facilitate a working relationship. And finally, you must work hard to develop and maintain the relationship.

          Managing Conflicts Constructively

                 Conflicts between people can arise over breakdowns in communication, value clashes, personality clashes, and culture clashes. Additionally, organizations may create conflicts through their work policies, practices, and adversarial management.

            Anger is at the root of many conflicts and usually indicates that a problem needs to be addressed. Even though anger can be expressed in nonproductive ways, you can choose to show or use your anger in ways that benefit everyone. At the same time, the normal and appropriate expression of anger can address your anxiety and help you get rid of unhealthy stress.

            There are several approaches for dealing with conflict, which may be grouped into three basic strategies: win/lose, lose/lose, and win/win. Using the win/win strategy not only can resolve a conflict but can also preserve good human relations. Regardless of the strategy implemented, your level of assertiveness and desire for cooperation are key factors in the effective resolution of personal conflicts with others. When people cannot solve their conflicts in an informal manner, many organizations create solutions through a conflict resolution process.  This process is dependent on win /win attitudes: a strong sensitive leader; and a clear outline of the steps that need to be taken to resolve the conflict.

            Conflict between employers and workers can be handled by labor unions negotiating with management. Labor unions are usually organized on a national level and help balance the power between labor and management. Unions engage in collective bargaining, which defines the rights and privileges of both sides and establishes the terms of employment in a contract or other types of legally binding document. If neither side can agree on issues, they can submit their disputes to arbitration or mediation for settlement. Whereas arbitration is binding on both parties, the decision reached through mediation for may be accepted or rejected by either side. Conflicts that arise after a contract has been negotiated can be handled through the grievance procedure.

            Both unions and management are facing complex problems that involves productivity, job security and worker training, and the preservation of the quality of work life enjoyed by employees. Both sides are attempting to cope with the challenges of hugh technology and changing economic conditions.

          Adapting to Personal and Work Related Stress

            When individuals cannot adequately respond or successfully adapt to a changing or unexpected set of circumstances, stress is usually the result. People tend to resist change because they feel inadequate to meet the challenge, feel their security is threatened, fear the unknown, mistrust those initiating the change, or lack the ability to see, the big picture. Nevertheless individuals can respond successfully to change by using their values as a guideline for making decisions and achieving goals and by cultivating active adaptability.

            Many of the stressors we experience are generated at work. Technostress the inability to cope with computer technology in a healthy manner, is a significant contemporary threat to individuals and organizations. As organizations downsize, they force fewer employees to produce more work in less time. This emphasis on speed is often aggravated by incompetent supervision. In addition, transitions that occur in personal life, such as marriage, divorce, or relocation may add more stressors that interfere with a person's effectiveness on the job. Workers also experience stress when changing jobs, when trying to keep up with rapidly evolving jobs, and when dealing with unemployment. Organizations are attempting to aid workers in dealing with stress.

                 Nevertheless, some stress in life is beneficial and helps keep a person motivated and excited. Therefore, the goal is not to eliminate stress but to learn how to identify it and then manage it. Individuals can take personal responsibility for the effect stress has on their lives by controlling their goals and expectations; eating a balanced diet; exercising regularly; taking time for mental relaxation; and effectively expressing their emotions. Many organizations offer wellness pro grams to help their employees counteract the effects of stress. These may include incentives to stay healthy, such as no&-smoking campaigns and weight control programs. Many wellness programs provide physical fitness opportunities, and nutrition training. Counseling programs are available in most organizations through employee assistance programs (EAPs). Some people turn to twelve&-step programs for help in coping with the various addictions that often result from too much stress. When workers are unable to manage an appropriate level of stress in their lives, they may be subjecting themselves to the effects of burnout. This condition requires effective self&-help and help from others if it is to be overcome.

          Valuing Work Force Diversity

            Work force diversity, or variety, has become an important issue for organizations that want to remain competitive in a global economy. These organizations are beginning to move away from focusing on prejudice and discrimination and toward valuing diversity. Two dimensions, or characteristics, are the basis of every individual's diversity. Primary dimensions include gender, age, race,  physical and mental abilities, and sexual orientation. Secondary dimensions often include religious beliefs, ethnic customs, communication style, and parental status.

                  Prejudice and discrimination are major barriers to effective human relations  Prejudice is an attitude based partly on observation of others differences and partly on ignorance, fear, and cultural conditioning. Prejudiced people tend to see others as stereotypes rather than as unique individuals. Prejudicial attitudes are formed through the effects of contamination, ethocentrisn, and economic factors. Discrimination is behavior based on prejudicial attitudes. Groups protected by law from discrimination in the workplace include women, people of color, older and younger workers, and those who have disabilities. More subtle forms of discrimination not covered by law include discrimination arising from sexual orientation, appearance, criminal convictions, and so on.

            These more subtle forms of discrimination are often difficult to prove but may be offset through assertiveness, a change in the behavior that causes the discrimination, or a move to a more tolerant organization.

           The issue of valuing diversity is an economic one for most organizations. The changing demographics of the American society mean that the work force will soon be made up of a minority of white men and a majority of diverse, talented, and well&-educated women and people of color. Companies cannot afford to ignore this change in the pool of human resources.

                    Individuals can enhance diversity by letting go of their stereotypes and learning to monitor their prejudiced attitudes as they work and socialize with people who are different. They will need to develop a sensitivity to differences and use language appropriately.

           Finally, organizations must develop a culture that respects and enhances diversity. Affirmative action guidelines will help bring many different individuals into the organization, but training and education will help all men and women reach their potential.

          The Changing Roles of Men and Women

            Gender bias is discrimination 'based on widely held beliefs about the abilities, characteristics, and behavior of men and women. The traditional roles assigned to both genders limit their opportunities to choose careers and lifestyles best suited to their abilities and true interests.

            Many men and women are breaking out of these traditional roles. Over the past few decades, women have entered the job world in increasing numbers and in professions previously considered all&-male. They also have a wider range of choices regarding marriage and children then ever before. Organizations are beginning to offer their employees options such as job sharing, flextime, and home&-based work so that they can better handle the demands of work and family

            Women are still subject to a wage gap as compared with men's wages for similar work, but the gap is narrowing. Moreover, the Department of labor has confirmed that the glass ceiling does exist and is holding women back from achieving high&-level positions in organizations. In some cases, women are as much a deterrent to other women's success in organizations as are gender&-biased men.

            Men are also choosing new roles for themselves. They are working to dispel the myth that men must always be in control, emotionally unexpressive, logical, and achievement oriented. They realize that the rigid male role  has had adverse effects on men's health and on their relationships with women and other men. Men are learning to make conscious choices about marriage, children, and career emphasis that better fit their value systems. Men have been entering traditionally female professions in increasing numbers and choosing more personally rewarding careers that allow time for family responsibilities, even if they sacrifice some material gain to do so.

            Sexual harassment may be a problem for some men as well as women. It may take one of two forms: quid pro quo, the threat of job security or promotions in exchange for sexual favors, or sexually explicit language, photos, or innuendoes that create a hostile work environment. Most organizations have developed  guidelines to help employees avoid harassment or fight it when it occurs.

                 Methods of coping with gender&-biased behavior include learning how to effectively communicate with the opposite sex, observing the new rules of etiquette in the workplace, and learning office politics.

          A Life Plan for Effective Human Relations

            The traditional definitions of success that most of us know are too confining. They view success almost entirely in terms of measurable job achievements. These definitions leave out the intangible successes to be had in private and in professional life.

            Many people today are discovering that true success is a combination of achievements. Achieving right livelihood is one important dimension of success. Right livelihood is work consciously chosen, done with full awareness and care, and leading to enlightenment. Right livelihood is based on conscious choice. Although right livelihood recognizes that work is a vehicle for self&-expression, it is a concept that places money in a secondary position. People who choose right livelihood are more apt to have high self&-esteem, are self&-disciplined, and have established meaningful goals.

            A person's nonfinancial resources make one of the biggest contributions to a happy and fulfilling life. Each of us has four nonfinancial resources that can enrich our lives: physical and mental health, education and training  (intellectual growth), leisure time (time for family, socializing, recreation), and healthy spirituality These nonfinancial resources can be acquired throughout our lives.

            Many Americans are working to achieve lifestyles. Healthy lifestyles can give us a higher energy level, a greater sense of self&-confidence, and generally a  more positive outlook. People who maintain good health  usually have more endurance, spend less time feeling tired or ill and miss less work than persons who are not physically fit.

                  Planning for changes in your life often requires breaking negative habits or forming positive habits. The process of breaking habits and forming new ones involves five steps: motivation, knowledge, practice, feedback, and reinforcement. Goal setting is also an integral part of a successful plan to make changes. Unspecified or vague goals are harder to reach and contribute less than they could to a productive, enriching life.