CONTRIBUTIONS MADE BY THE ARABS
TO THE FIELD OF MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE
The inspiration received from the Qur'an and the Sunna changed the medical
climate of Arabia. The Arabs who were unable to combat the numerous diseases
effectively because they were ignorant of their etiology and drew their remedies
from popular folk medicines, evolved medical science to its height in every
branch of medicine such as physiology, and anatomy, pathology, bacteriology,
surgery, pharmacy, chemistry, dermatology, ophthalmology, gynecology, pharmacology,
epidemiology, orthopedic surgery, anaesthetic, psychiatry, gastrology, dental
surgery and diagnosis and treatment.
No culture in the world is immune from the process of reception and assimilation.
The Arabs, emerging as an 'Iqra-community (Reading and Research community),
as a victorious and conquering force, came in touch with Greek, Iranian and
Indian medical systems in the conquered lands. They studied them and preserved
them. They, in fact, saved the works of the Greeks from extinction, at the
hands of the early churches and gave it a scientific basis. The Greeks were
more speculative and neglected experiment and observation. The word 'doctor',
the system of hospitals and the institutions of medical teachings were established
by the Arabs who wrote books on medicine and surgery and laid the foundations
of the renaissance in Europe. Briffault, writes in the 'Making of Humanity'
(P.191) that science owes a great deal more to the Arab culture, it owes
its existence to Arab scientists, who made startling discoveries of revolutionary
theories. He says that 'the Greeks systematized, generalized and theorized,
but the patient ways of investigation, the accumulation of positive knowledge,
the minute methods of science, detailed and prolonged observations, experimental
enquiry, altogether alien to the Greek treatment, that spirit (of inquiry)
and those methods were introduced into the European World by the Arabs'.
There is no doubt that such a spirit of inquiry was inculcated amongst the
Muslim physicians and surgeons by the Qur'an and the Sunna. The Qur'an urges
humans to conquer the forces of nature for the benefit of man, his health
and growth. The Qur'an makes it clear that all that is in the heaven and
in the earth has been made subservient to man, the vicegerent of Allah. 'The
rise of Europe came after the capture of Muslim Empire and their intellectual,
scientific and cultural treasures as a booty. Even the tenth century Cordova
was the most cultured city in Europe and so were Baghdad and Constantinople'.
Philip K. Hitti, the renowned author of the "History of the Arabs", writes
that scientists in Cordova with their seventeen libraries, one of which included
more than four hundred thousand volumes, enjoyed luxurious baths at a time
when washing the body was considered a dangerous custom at the University
of Oxford. The Church retarded the progress of medicine for centuries because
it preached that disease was the result of one's own sin, unworthy of treatment.
Free inquiry was a sin in Europe, consequently, great scientists were burnt,
such as Bruno, who believed in the revolution of the earth (a theory of Copernicus),
and Galileo, for their scientific beliefs. Contrary to this, in Baghdad in
1168 C.E., there were no less than sixty well organized medical institutions
and the Mustansiriyya Medical College at Baghdad had magnificent buildings,
luxurious furniture, library with rare scientific books and a great dining
hall to serve good food to students.
Courses were being offered in various branches and fields of specialization.
Max nordon says that hospitals in Europe were pest holes and in one of the
best hospitals in Europe in Paris, there lay four, five or six persons in
one bed of moderate width, besides each other and on the same couch, body
against body, a woman groaned in pangs of labour, a nursing infant withheld
in convulsions, a typhus patient burnt in the delirium of fever. 'There was
a hospital in each Muslim city and Baghdad had sixty hospitals with both
indoor and outdoor departments. Mansuri-Hospital at Cairo (built in 1282
C.E.) rivaled the palace of Caliphs. Women nurses served the sick and the
patients. It was the legacy of the past. Umm Salima, Umm Muta, Umm 'Atiya
and Laila were expert nurses in wars, even during the Prophet's time. In
Europe, dissections were forbidden, but Muslim anatomists were freely dissecting
bodies. They considered anatomy essential for strengthening faith in God',
'Abd-al-Latif of Baghdad dissected the human body in the eleventh century
and proved that Galen's theory of the lower jaw was wrong. He wrote many
books on anatomy. The Arabs rejected Galen's 'Book on Anatomy'. They performed
anatomical dissections on monkeys and fully operated upon them in order to
obtain more knowledge of the human body. The figure plates and diagrams of
the parts of the human body as illustrated in 'Tarikh al-Mansuri' by Mansur
ibn-Muhammad (1396 C.E.) were never found in Greek literature. Ali bin 'Abbas
suggested that the walls of blood vessels contained three layers, as determined
by contemporary anatomists. Muslim anatomists held that the human skull consisted
of eight bones while Galen had thought that there were only seven bones.
They also discovered that the ear contained three ossicles, which facilitated
hearing. In the field of physiology, again, Burhan ad-Din wrote in
his book 'Shart al-Asbab', that blood contained sugar. Ar Razi discovered
a sour matter (Acid) in the stomach. It was three hundred years before
Sir William Harvey, that Ibn-Abi Hazm of Damascus explained the theory of
the circulation of blood in detail
and proved that food is fuel for the maintenance of the body's heat. This
theory was developed much later in Europe. Abu-'Ali-sina explained the process
of digestion and he discovered the secretions in the mouth mixed and digested
food long before this was known in the West. Abu-l Faraj discovered the canals
in the nerves through which sensations flow. Abu-'Ali Sina also excelled
in bacteriology, the basis of contemporary medical science which is a product
of research on germs. He first pointed out how bodily secretion is contaminated
by foul foreign earthly bodies. Ibn-Khatima (1369 C.E.) discussed how the
minute bodies enter the human system and cause disease. The theory of germs
causing disease was thus developed by Arab doctors. Measles and smallpox
were regarded by ar-Razi as two distinct diseases. He wrote a book on the
subject. Muslims in Turkey treated smallpox through vaccination in 1679.
The system reached Europe in the eighteenth century through Lady Montague,
wife of the British Ambassador in Turkey. The Greek physicians had failed
to differentiate between the two distinct diseases. Abu-'l Mansur Sa'id,
unlike the old Greek physicians, used light food and cold producing
medicines for the treatment of general arid facial paralysis. The process
of bleeding as a treatment of cerebral haemorrhage, often caused by blood
pressure, was introduced by Abu-'l Hasan. Abu-'l Q'asim az-Zahrawi, a tenth
century physician, also discovered the cause of paralysis due to injury of
the medulla or spinal cord.
The Arab physicians knew the principles of oral-therapy, and used the stomach
tube to perform gastric lavage in cases of poisoning. It was only 50 years
after that Dr Brown Seguard used this method of treatment. The Arabs also
used the animal brain for the treatment of mental disorder. The treatment
through food control was prescribed by Ibn-al-Wafid. Hay fever was first
described by Baha ad-Dawla in 1507, which was discovered by the Europeans
centuries later. Cauterization was caused by 'Ali ibn-Rabban in the
treatment of nerve disease. Tuberculosis was defined for the first time by
Abu-'l Hasan at Tabari, as an inflammatory reaction which affects not only
the lungs but also the other parts of the body. Najib ad-Din as-Samarqandi
discovered centuries before Nephritis, Bright's disease, named after Dr Richard
Bright in the 18th century. As-Samarqandi also described albumen, Which cause
swelling of body if it passes through the urine. The effect of gonorrhea
and the stricture caused by it was described by Abu'l Mansur al-Hasan al-Qamari
in his book 'Ghina wa Muna' centuries earlier than the West treated it. Abu'l
Hasan at-Tabari was the first physician who acquainted the world with sarcoptes
(scabies).
The art of surgery reached its zenith with Arab surgeons. Abu-'l Qasim az-Zahrawi
invented several surgical instruments which are illustrated in his book At-Tasrif.
The modifications made in the medical instruments and the operations he performed
have also been illustrated in picture. Ibn-Zuhr, a surgeon of
the eleventh century, fully described the operation of tracheotomy, unmentioned
in Greek books, in his book 'Kitab at-Taisir'. The treatment for lachrymal
fistula was first prescribed by Ibn-Sina. The method of cooling to stop
the haemorrhage as well as of suturing wounds with silken threads were introduced
and applied by the Arab surgeons, and thermocautery of wounds was also initiated
by them. The use of alcohol for medical purposes was introduced for the first
time by ar-Razi. Anaethesia was applied by them to keep the patient unconscious
as long as seven days whilst conducting major operations.
Most highly developed was the surgery of the eye. They knew that cataracts
were caused by an opacity of the lens. Even spectacles, having lenses various
powers were prescribed by them for defective vision. Ar- Razi was the first
to give an account of the operation for the extraction of cataract and to
describe the pupillary reflex to light. The commentator of 'al-Asbab' explains
in detail the diseases of the eye. The treatment and cure of cancer has not
yet been found. Surgical operation is the only remedy. It was Ibn-Sina who
advised for the first time that all the adjoining parts and affected vessels
should be removed in the operation for cancer. The operations for uvula and
nasal polypi were discussed by the Arab surgeons for the first time when
they described the operations of the skull and its parts. The method of of
tonsillectomy and paracentesis of the drum of the ear was invented by them.
In the case of tongue cancer they recommended the excision of the whole tongue
and in the case of osteomyelitis they suggested the removal of the diseased
bone. The drainage of the peritoneal cavity was performed by them first amongst
all. They used the method, which was adopted later by Fowler and Potin. It
has been described in detail by Baha ad-Dawla.
Surgery (al-'Amal al-Jarrahiya), received special attention of the Arabs
as is mentioned in classical Arabic literature on history, biography and
Hadith. The Prophet himself performed surgery and ordered other experts to
perform surgical operations. Ibn-Hidhyam, a pre-Islamic surgeon was renowned
in Kayy-Surgery (cauterization) and became proverbial in his skill to an
extent that even the poet applauded him. After Islam the art of surgery was
developed and specialists were trained in various branches, such as, eye-specialists
(Kuhhal), general surgeons (Jarrah), vein surgeons (Fasd: venesection or
phlebotomy), dental surgeons (Asnan), neuro surgeons (Mualij al-Majan) and
gynaecologists (Mu'alij an-Nisa').
A woman eye-specialist, Zainab, was most renowned in ancient Arabia. Ahmad
b. wasif as-sabi Jibril, Sharif, Isra and Hunaiyn b. Ishaq were leading eye-specialists
of the time. The following books Written in Arabic on eye-treatment merit
special mention for they contain the theoretical part of the treatment:
(i) 'Tarkib al-'Ayn'
(ii) 'Kashf ar-Ray'
(iii) 'Ma'rifa Mihnat al-Kuhhalin'
(iv) 'Shifa al-'Uyun'
(v) 'Natijat al-Fikr fi Ahwal al Basar'
(vi) 'Wa'l al' 'Ayn'
Muhammad Zakariyya Razi wrote a special book for his pupil Yusuf b. Yakub
entitled: 'Adwiyat al-'Ayn wa 'Ilajuha wa Mawadatuha'. 'Ala ad-Din' Ali b.
'Abd al-Karim as-Safadi al-Kuhhal (720 A.H./ 1320 C.E.) is famous for his
'al-Qanun fi Amrad al-'Uyun' and Hafid b. Zahr. (507-595/1199) for his 'Tibb
al-'Uyun'. Jirji Zaidan in his 'Tarikh at-Tamaddun al-Islami' has devoted
a special chapter on Islamic medicine under the title 'Ma Ahdath al-Muslimun
fit-Tibb', which provides valuable information in this regard. The three
terms used by the Arabs for the art of surgery, were Shaqq (open or Fission),
Qat' (excision, amputation) and Jiraha (surgery). Haji Khalifa in his Kashf
az-Zunun furnishes more details about surgery in general and about the eye
operation (al-Qadh) in particular. Eye operations, according to the author
needed high skill, both the theoretical and the practical knowledge. The
author also mentions the names of the Greek books that were translated by
the Arabs. Since the hot geographical climate of Arabia suited venesection
(Fasd) and sacrification or cupping (Hijama), they were commonly practiced
in the country and Kayy surgery was performed for many incurable diseases.
In the battle of Uhad when the Holy Prophet was wounded his head wound was
filled up by Fatima with burnt cotton. The use of cold water, burnt cotton
and sand for stopping bleeding was the Arab treatment unknown to the Greeks.
The Holy Prophet, according to Imams Bukhari, Muslim and Ahmad approved of
the Hijama (Cupping) treatment. The narration has been confirmed by Abu-Daud,
Tirmidhi and Ibn-Maja. This treatment was usually recommended for headache
or leg aches. The Prophet also recommended the use of henna (Mehndi). According
to Hagrat Jabir the Prophet himself underwent Hijama surgery for his lumbar
pains. Ibn-Abi-Usaib a'mentions in his 'Uyun al-Anba' (Beirut 1965), some
of the rare cases of Hijama operations.
The Prophet was administered the same treatment when he was poisoned through
food. Scholars have authored important book on Hijama surgery, such as 'Kitab
al-Hijama' was written by Ibn-Jibril while Kitab fi'l Fasd' and 'Hijama'
was authored by Yuhanna b. Masawaih. 'Isa b. Masawaih also wrote books on
the same subject. The Kayy-operation was performed by the Prophet himself
in the Battle of Ahzab when 'Ubay b. Ka'b was wounded by an arrow. But the
Prophet warned people not to resort either to Fasd or to Hijama without proper
medical advice. Draining of impure blood from the body was also practiced
in Arabia. Ar-Razi wrote a book on Fasd. Ibn-al-Jazzar, who compiled a book
on the subject had also warned people about the serious dangers of Fasd,
for it was an effective treatment for reducing blood pressure, curing the
swelling of liver (probably due to heart failure) and the inflammation of
the spleen and the lungs. Hafiz b. Qayyim, a renowned traditionalist (Muhaddith)
and a medical doctor (Tabib), has written valuable chapters on medicine (Abwab
at-Tibb) in his 'Zad al-Ma'ad' (Egypt 1925), a book on Sira of the Prophet.
The part medicine has been published separately under the title of Tibb-an-Nabawi'
(The Prophetic Medicine).
The Arabs gave pharmaceutics a scientific basis. A number of useful herbs,
unknown to the Greeks, were discovered by the Arabs. Mercury ointment was
invented by ar-Razi. The first book on Greek herbs was written by Ibn-al-Muwaffaq
in Persian, which contained a list of 585 herbs. The book is known as 'Kitab-al-Abniya'an
Haqaiq al-Adwiyya'. But 'al-Mufradat' of Ibn-al-Baitar has excelled in all
respects for the author has described in detail 1400 herbs. All kinds of
syrups and electuaries were prepared by the Arabs who used Itrifal in medical
practice. Silver and gold coating was also introduced by them who for the
first time compiled pharmacopoeia, that is, a list of drugs with fable dosages.
Sabur b. Sahl is to be credited for a work of great magnitude, which was
unknown to the Greeks.
The science of pharmacology, developed by the Arabs, facilitated the advancement
of medicine. The specialists on herbs, called an Nabatin, spent their lives
in discovering the variety of herbs in the vast territory of the empire,
climbing the hills and mountains, and wrote exhaustive notes on their curative
effects. This gave rise to the discipline (science) of Botany. The well-known
authors in this field were Ghafiqi al-Andalusi, Abu Daud Sulaiman b. Hassan,
as Ibn-Gibril, Rashid ad-Din as Suri, Sabur b.Sahl and Diya ad-Din 'Abd Allah
b. Ahmad b. Baitar. The book written by Ibn-Baitar under the title 'Al Jami
li-Mufradat al-Adwiyya', popularly known as 'Mufradat', according to Jirji
Zaidan, served as a reference book on vas medicine in Europe during the Renaissance.
The so-called medieval science developed by the Arabs was in no way less
organized than the medical treatment in modern Europe. Specialists in every
part of the body and experts in a variety of diseases were trained by Arabs.
Chemistry or al-Kimiya is in fact the invention of the Arabs who explained
for the first time the methods of percolation, sublimation distillation,
crystallization and melting etc. Several chemical compositions such as nitric
acid, sulphuric acid, nitro-hydrochloric acid, ferrous sulphate, liquor,
ammonia, mercury, chlorides, mercury oxide and potassium nitrate etc., were
prepared by them. Till recently, medical treatment was largely based upon
these chemicals. Several other kinds of acids and alkalies were also prepared
by specialists. In addition to laying the foundation of chemistry, they in
fact corrected many theories. Yaqub b. Ishaq al-Kindi belonged to that group
which critically examined and evaluated Greek chemistry. The Greek records
on midwifery did not reach the Arabs. They themselves evolved this branch
of treatment. 'Abd-al-Qasim az-Zahrawi deals with the walcher position in
his book 'Kitab at-Tasrif'. He also invented the method of cranioclasty for
the delivery of dead foetus. The caesarean section performed by the Arab
physician has been illustrated in 'Al-Athar al-Baqiya'. The discoveries in
the field of new drugs and therapeutic agents are so great that they cannot
be enumerated here. Ar-Razi was the first to introduce wet cupping for the
treatment of apoplexy and the application of cold water in typhoid. Ibn-Sina
was first to recommend the use of waterbeds for the patients with typhoid
fever. The same theory was later developed as Little's tubes, ice bags and
cold sponging etc., now in use.
Medical literature produced by the Arabs served as reference works in Europe
for centuries and their researches in medical sciences have been proved as
valid even today. The Arabs systematized different branches of medical knowledge
and undertook intense researches in the field. Their books such as 'Firdaus
al-Hikma' 'Kamil as-Sina'a', the Canon and 'Al-Hawi' bear testimony to their
researches made for the advancement of medical sciences and the medicine.
Yuhanna asserted in his 'Kitab an-Nawadirat at- Tibbiyya' that any theory
without test and experiment was meaningless. Ibn-Sa'id in the preface of
his pharmacopoeia hasestablished that no fact can be accepted as true without
experiment. Ar-Razi disagreed with his predecessors in his famous 'Al-Hawi'
and 'Kitab al-Fakhir'. He has recorded his own observations with utter disregard
whether they agreed with Greek theories or not. Ibn-Sarabiyun
in his 'Al-Fusul al-Muhimma fit-Tibb al-Umma' has adopted a similar attitude.
Practical training and experiments marked their knowledge. The school of
Alexandria, according to the author of 'Tabaqat al-Atibba' was
devoid of experimental and observational qualities. The medical graduates
had to serve in hospitals in order to acquire practical training, which is
regarded today as an essential part of medical course. This system was later
adopted in Italy and France. No physician, according to ar-Razi was qualified
for appointment unless he had fulfilled two requirements: one being well
versed in both the classical and the contemporary medical literature and
the other that he had practical training in a hospital as a house physician
or a surgeon. The pupils of ar-Razi attended to patients at Rayy Hospital.
In order to advance the knowledge of medical sciences a scientific association
was-formed under the directorship of zahid al-Ulama in the Mayyafariqin Hospital
which led to the clinical discussion of cases and the recording of the conditions
of patients. The clinical observations and scientific treatment, which have
been the basis of modern medical sciences, have been discussed by ar-Razi
in 'Al-Hawi' and 'Kitab al-Fakhir'. The book 'Kitab al-Fusul al-Muhimma'
also contains full descriptions in this regard.
