THE RISE OF ARABIC
MEDICAL LITERATURE:
Prolific Writers: An Introduction
Among great creative thinkers, who produced works of ingenuity, only a few
can briefly be introduced here. 'Ali-ibn-Sahl Rabban at-Tabari, born around
810 C.E. in 'Merve in Iran, deserves special mention for his famous Kitab
Firdaws al-Hikma' (The Paradise of Wisdom), which is one of the first compendia
of medicine written in Arabic. It was completed in 850 C.E. Western scholars
(The Orientalists) regard the work as a free adaptation of a Syriac translation
largely based on Greek sources, such as, on Hippocrates (Buqrat), Galen (Jalinus),
Aristotle, Dioscurides and others. They regard it as an intermingling of
rational and magical observations of nature. The systems of Indian and Persian
medicines, according to them, were also included in the work, probably through
Arabic translations of the works of Caraka, Susruta, Vaghhala and Madha Vakara.
Abu-Zakariyya' Yuhanna b. Masawaih (777-857 C.E.), personal physician of
Mamun and other 'Abbasid Caliphs at Baghdad and Samarra, wrote an exhaustive
book on general pathology, the 'Kitab al-Kamal wat-Tamam', in addition to
many monographs on pathological and physiological problems. His competence
can be adjudged through his pupils among whom was the famous Hunain b. Ishaq
al-Ibadi (d.873 or 877) who translated Greek works. He also wrote many medical
monographs of his own. His 'Kitab al-Mudkhal fit-Tibb', is an introductory
manual on medicine, presented in dialectic form, including pharmaceutics
and cystoscopy. The materials beyond Galen or Alexandrian medicine were systematized
and schematized by him. His 'Kitab al-'Ashr Maqalat fi'l 'Ayn', on ophthalmology,
completed during the course of thirty years, formed the starting point for
the specialized ophthalmological literature written in Arabic. His 'Qawl
fi-Hifz al-Asnan was-Tislahiha' is regarded as the first comprehensive book
on dentistry. Similarly, his large book on diet, the 'Kitab al-Aghdhiya'
in three parts, namely i) on foodstuffs, ii) on food derived from seeds and
fruit and iii) from plants and animals, is a unique contribution to the field
of dietetics (al-Aghdhiya')
Qusta ibn-Luqa al-Ba'labakki (born about 820 C.E., basically a scholar of
mathematics and philosophy), translated numerous Greek books in Arabic. Numerous
stimulating works on medical science were also composed by him with special
reference to physiological and psychological problems, which examined the
relations, which existed between constitution and character or conduct of
life, that is, the emotion and aesthetic perceptions. Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn-Zakariyya'
ar-Razi (865-923) needs no introduction. According to August Muler he was
'the most creative genius of medieval medicine' and Von Grunebaum highly
evaluated 'the sureness of his diagnosis and the cool precision of his case
histories'. He was both a great philosopher and a medical doctor and chemist.
He served as the director of hospitals in-Rayy, Iran and at Baghdad respectively.
His book 'Kitab al-Mansuri' (dedicated to the Samanid prince) is one of the
classical works on Arabic medicine. Of its ten parts 'Liber Nous' was well
known in the West. Ar-Razi has dealt with special pathology in his book.
His 'Kitab al-Hawi (Continens) dealing with pathology and therapy, was published
after his death by Ibn-al-'Amid, the Vizier of Buwaihid, Rukn ad-Dawla, in
twenty-three volumes. It influenced the course of future Arabic medical literature
and was translated into Latin by Farj b. Salim and long served as a teaching
manual in various faculties in Europe.
'Ali ibn-al-'Abbas al-Majusi, a Persian Zoroastrian from al-Ahwaz, and a
doctor to the Buwaihid prince, wrote his famous book 'Kitab Kamil as Sina
a at Tibbiya (also known as al-Kitab al-Malaki). It is amongst the best of
classical works on Islamic medicine, becoming as famous as that of Ibn-Sina's
Canon through the Middle Ages till the Modern times. No magical or astrological
ideas are found in it. Ali died between 982 and 995 C.E. The Cordovan doctor
Abu-'lQasim Khalaf ibn-al-'Abbas az-Zahrawi, serving during the reign of
'Abd-ar-Rahman III, wrote his remarkable book the 'Kitab at-Tasrif. He raised
the standard of surgery to scientific levels. It remained no longer in the
hands of barbers or cuppers as in the rest of Europe. The thirteen parts
of the book, dealing with surgery, were acknowledged, to the
extent that the surgical works of Roger of Parma, Lanfranchi, Guilielmo,
Salicetti and Fabrizio d' Acquapendents were immensely influenced by his
work. It is often quoted in the Chiruogia Magna of Gay de Chauliac', completed
in 1363, and exercised its influence right into the eighteenth century.
Abu-'Ali al-Husain ibn-'Abd-Allah ibn-Sina (d.1037) is another creative genius
who was born in Afshana near Bukhari in 980 C.E. Being a scholar of the Qur'an,
Islamic law, logic, metaphysics, mathematics and astronomy, he studied medicine
from a definitive angle. He started medical practice at the age of sixteen
and treated the ruler of Bukhara Nuh b. Mansur. It was in Jurjan where he
wrote his magnum opus, the 'Kitab al-Qanun, which is gigantic work consisting
of five books. The first book deals with physiology, while in the second
the author presents examples from the three realms of nature. The third book
is devoted to special pathology. A variety of diseases are enumerated in
the fourth book and pharmacy is the subject of the fifth. The Qanun has won
the highest esteem both in the East and the West. Its massive manuscripts,
commentaries, and super commentaries are still preserved. Its Latin translation
appeared about a hundred years after his death. Gerard of Cremona in Toledo
translated it into Latin, which was printed thirty six times in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries a feat rarely achieved even by modern medical textbooks!
It is a systematization and a comprehensive presentation of the medical science
of the time.
Abu-Marwan 'Abd al-Malik ibn-Zuhr, who was born in Seville in 1091 or 1094,
wrote the 'Kitab al-Iqtisad' which was a bibliography. But his main work
is 'Kitab al-Taisir' which is on pathology along with a collection of prescriptions.
It contains the particularia of medicine. The Taisir established his reputation
in Europe. It was translated into Hebrew and Latin and went through eight
editions in Latin between 1490 and 1554. He died in 1161-2.
Abu-l Walid Muhammad ibn-Ahmad ibn-Rushd (d.1198) (Latin Averroes) was born
in Cordova in 1126. Despite his main achievements in Islamic Jurisprudence
and Aristotelian philosophy, he took a special interest in medicine. His
main medical work the 'Kitab al-Kulliyat' (Latin Colliget) deals with anatomy,
dietetics, pathology, symptomatology, nourishment, malaria medica, hygiene
and therapeutics. Like ar-Razi and Ibn-Sina he made significant contributions
to the science of Arabic medicine.
Ibn-Maimun (Latin Maimonides), personal physician of Salah ad-Din's son al-Malik
al-Afda Nur ad-Din, was born in Cordova in 1135 C.E. and later migrated to
Egypt. He wrote the 'Kitab al-Fusul' in which 1500 quotations from Galen
were collected together with quotations from Arab writers. He collected the
synonyms of drugs and commented on poisons. Muwaffaq ad-Din 'Abd-al-Latifibn-Yusufal-Baghdadi,
born in Baghdad (in 1162 C.E.), taught medicine from 1207 in Damascus. Being
a scholar of independent thought, he always strove to reach the truth and
finally discovered the unity of lower maxilla which was thought to be composed
of 2 parts. His books on Diabetes are extremely valuable. He died in Baghdad
in 1231 C.E. 'Ala ad-Din 'Ali ibn-Abi' Hazm al-Quraishi, known as Ibn-an-Nafis,
(d.1288) another great teacher of medicine in Baghdad, wrote an epitome of
the 'Canon' of Ibn-Sina. He wrote a treatise entitled 'Fadil ibn-Natiq' in
addition to commentaries on several Hippocratic writings, which became extremely
popular. He also wrote a large commentary on the 'Canon' in which he developed
his own theory of the pulmonary circulation. Diya' ad-Din 'Abd-Allah ibn-Ahmad
ibn-al-Baitar (d.1248) was born in Malaga tothe end of the twelfth century.
After having traveled over Muslim World he finally settled in Egypt and was
bestowed the title of 'King of Botanists'. He died in Damascus. Out
of his several works on materia medica the 'Kitab al-Jami' li Mufradat al-Adwiya
wal-Aghdhiy', is a comprehensive work on remedies and food. It is a compilation
of more than two hundred different sources, including the text of Dioscurides.
The Arabic medical literature, produced by prolific writers, thus rose to
great heights. The names mentioned here are only few amongst the dozens of
writers of the Middle Ages.
Manfred Ullmann has depicted the Arab researchers merely as imitators or
borrowers of Greek thought on medicine. But despite his negative attitude
he was obliged to acknowledged that:
'It should not of course be assumed that at that time European medicine was
theoretically superior to Arabic medicine. The Arabic traditions still dominated
medicine in Europe as is seen from the numerous editions of Ibn-Sina, produced
in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The influence of Europe on Islamic
medicine makes itself emphatically felt in the seventeenth century when Ibn-Sullum,
the physician to the Ottoman Sultan Mehmet IV, wrote his 'The lnf1uence of
Arabic Medicine on the West'.
It is well known that a number of Arabic books written on medical sciences
were translated into Latin, as will be discussed later. Constantinus Africanus
(d.1087) translated the most important of Arabic medical works, which were
written until the middle of the eleventh century. But they were mostly 'circulated
under his own name as if he, not an Arab, was the author'. He was born in
Tunis but settled in Italy as a convert to Christianity and spent his life
as a monk in the church, translating the Arabic books which he had brought
with him from Tunis.
Toledo, won back by the Christians in 1085 became the centre of translation
of the Arabic scientific works into Latin. The town 'soon became the centre
where Arabic learning was passed on to the West'. Raymond of Sauvetat who
became archbishop of Toledo in 1125 was instrumental in this process. Latin
translations of the eleventh and the twelfth centuries 'laid the foundation
of' Arabism' in the medicine of the West, a trend which was dominant for
centuries, and was reversed only in modern times and after long argument.
For long the rule held that 'he who would be a good doctor must be a good
Avicecennist'.