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Abstract

Computer games, simulations, and virtual activities in education need to be carefully reviewed before being selected for use in the classroom. Educators should take a proactive role in promoting the appropriate selection and use of software that engages students in a meaningful way. Teacher-led classroom discussions of current events in gaming and web-based programs must be heard by parents and guardians, so that what is taught in school is reinforced at home. This paper (April, 2004) will cite examples from actual classroom experience and current events, while examining the relationship to the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE, 2004) social, ethical and human standards. Analysis of the dimension, scope, and opportunity for higher-order thinking will shed light on the value computer games, simulations, and virtual activities for students.

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Computer Games

Computer games in education need to be carefully reviewed for appropriate use and compatibility on many levels. Teachers must evaluate computer games that require input from students, and output from software in the form of positive or negative reinforcement. The following questions need to be answered before students launch game software in schools:

1. Does the game relate to grade-level curriculum?

2. Is the game intended to reinforce basic mathematics or language arts skills?

3. Does the game provide appropriate feedback?

4. Does the game require the user to take notes, ask questions, or go elsewhere for information?

5. Is the game limited in scope and dimension, such that higher order thinking skills are not engaged?

6. Is the game in conflict with the Technology Foundation Standards for Students (ISTE, 2004)?

A recent article from Education Week: Technology in Education (http://www.edweek.org, February 2004) cites research that shows computers in elementary classrooms are primarily used for math games and drill and practice activities. Schools with computers in every classroom also have teachers who have not yet learned how to use the computer as a tool for teaching and learning. Many elementary school teachers view computers in their classrooms as toys, and allow their students to play games before and after school as well as during recess. The unfortunate outcome is that students are taught to view the computer as a toy, and not a tool for learning.

Many of the Technology Foundation Standards for Students (ISTE, 2004) for social, ethical, and human issues (Table 1) should be considered when selecting games for use in the classroom. For example, is the game age-appropriate, and relevant to the curriculum? Does the

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game promote cooperative learning? Are positive social and ethical behaviors exhibited when playing the game? Is the computer being used in a responsible way by the students?

Table 1

Performance indicators for technology literate students (ISTE, 2004)

Pre-K – 2: Prior to completion of 2^nd Grade, students will:	· Work cooperatively with peers, family members, and others when using technology in the classroom. · Demonstrate positive social and ethical behaviors when using technology. · Practice responsible use of technology systems and software.
Grades 3 – 5: Prior to completion of Grade 5, students will:	· Discuss common uses of technology in daily life and the advantages and disadvantages those uses provide. · Discuss basic issues related to responsible use of technology and information and describe personal consequences of inappropriate use.
Grades 6-8: Prior to completion of Grade 8, students will:	· Demonstrate knowledge of current changes in information technologies and the effect those changes have on the workplace and society. · Exhibit legal and ethical behaviors when using information and technology, and discuss consequences of misuse. · Research and evaluate the accuracy, relevance, appropriateness, comprehensiveness, and bias of electronic information sources concerning real-world problems.
Grades 9–12: Prior to completion of Grade 12, students will:	· Identify capabilities and limitations of contemporary and emerging technology resources and assess the potential of these systems and services to address personal, lifelong learning, and workplace needs. · Make informed choices among technology systems, resources, and services. · Analyze advantages and disadvantages of widespread use and reliance on technology in the workplace and in society as a whole. · Demonstrate and advocate for legal and ethical behaviors among peers, family, and community regarding the use of technology and information.

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Educational computer games, such as Word Munchers (The Learning Company, Minnesota Educational Computer Corporation, MECC, 2004) and Math Munchers (MECC, 2004), provide basic language arts and mathematics drills, but also incorporate purple monsters, known as Troggles, and high score features which give students the impression that they are playing and not learning. In addition, if the material is too easy, or has already been learned, students will quickly surmise that the primary goal is to get the highest score possible while avoiding being eaten by Troggles. The result of playing repetitive games with limited outcomes is wasted class time for students and teachers.

The Sunburst (Sunburst Technology Corporation, 2004) software catalog cover reads “Empowering Teachers, Inspiring Students, Unlocking Potential.” Personal observation and experience has shown that most game titles from these types of catalogs ultimately disengage teachers, and leave students with the primary goal of making it to the high score hall of fame. Technology coordinators for schools faced with the responsibility for spending money that has been budgeted for software must be wary of these pitfalls, as well as other problems such as compatibility with future operating systems, and negative reinforcement. The Math Blaster (Knowledge Adventure, 2000), and Reading Blaster (Knowledge Adventure, 2000) games have serious compatibility issues, running on Windows 95, but freezing later Windows operating systems. The Early Learning Center (Multi Dimensional Communications, 1994) program has many useful learning outcomes for children ages 4 to 7, but includes a game sequence where students punch the cyber-opponent in the head if they get a correct answer, or have their cyber-hero walloped if they get the wrong answer.

Computer games designed to teach kindergarten students early literacy skills is an example of a more appropriate use of game software in schools. Earobics (Cognitive Concepts, 2003) is a phonemic awareness program that offers five different skills games designed teach children beginning and ending word sounds. Each student must wear headphones, and is

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directed by a teacher to play a specific game within the program. The software provides detailed progress information that is printed and shared with parents, and challenges students by upgrading the degree of difficulty with successful completion of each level. Learning specialists at The Haverford School, Haverford, PA have reported improvement in decoding, sight vocabulary, and spelling of students who have used Earobics by the completion of 1^st grade. The software maker also provides testimonials from eleven different school districts across the United States providing assessment tools and areas of improvement (Cognitive Concepts, http://www.earobics.com/teachers/readingfirst/researchproven.cfm).

Web-based computer games are all over the Internet, and many focus on entertainment value, or violence. A recent Google search for “Educational games” listed Educational Games (http://www.teach-nology.com/web_tools/games/, 2004) at the top of the results displayed. Games ready for download from this site included Battle Ship, Miniature Golf, and Get the Gopher, the purpose of which is to kill a gopher before it turns your lawn into a sand box. Many “game” sites need to be filtered from schools, such as MiniClip (http://www.miniclip.com, 2004). MiniClip features a directory entitled Shoot ‘em Up, with twenty-five sites that include games with guns, explosives, and questionable social, moral, and ethical content.

I recently read Grand Theft Auto in the dock over US road killing (gameindustry.biz, The Register, March 2004) to a class of 5^th grade boys at The Haverford School, Haverford, PA. I was not surprised that a majority of the students knew about the game, which features killing and hate crimes. However, the number of students who said that they had played the game, and thought it was great disturbed me. When asked if software makers or parents should be responsible for children playing these types of games, the majority of 5^th grade students said it was an issue of parental guidance, and that the software was not to blame. I also shared my view with students, which is that while I do not endorse software with violent content, I agree with their position that adults must be responsible for what computer games children use at all times.

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Simulations

Simulation software has proven useful for the study and understanding advanced math, science, and engineering concepts. What sets simulations apart from computer games, is likelihood that teachers will have selected them for a specific purpose, and will require students to reflect upon and draw conclusions from the program sequence. One example of a computer simulation selected for educational purposes is the West Point Bridge Designer 2004 (http://www.usma.edu/bridgecontest, 2004). The bridge design software is updated annually as part of a national bridge design contest. The software requires students to select from numerous design templates, or create a unique new design. Students must make decisions about deck elevation and excavation, as well as explore variables for steel composition and size, all of which have associated costs that are calculated on screen as students add materials. The goal of the contest is to build a successful bridge for the least amount of money. The simulation comes in the form of a load test, which shifts the program from the design mode to animation, with a truck that moves successfully over the structure, or unsuccessfully, showing a bridge collapse. The software gives students more detailed feedback, highlighting steel members that are unsafe in compression. Fifth grade students from The Haverford School, Haverford, PA, and Medford Lakes Elementary School, Medford, NJ, have used the software over the past three years for a local competition and collaboration project. Aside from an introduction to basic engineering concepts, students have made appropriate use of e-mail to submit useful tips to the contest collaboration page, as well as successful designs to be posted on the contest scoreboard. Students are also required to build a model bridge with plastic Kinnex (Kinnex Corp., 2003), and submit a written report about their computer designs that includes strategy, materials used, tips, and activity reflection.

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While simulations are likely to have more appropriate classroom applications than computer games, an important warning must be acknowledged, particularly for engineering simulations. In an article from Georgia Tech Research Horizons entitled Better Buildings,

Stronger Structures (Sanders, 2004), the software developer of GT STRUDL, which stands for Georgia Tech Structural Design Language, warns engineers about technology dependence. Dr. Leroy Emkin, co-developer of the GT STRUDL software is an advocate for competent human engineers making design computations before turning to a computer. Dr. Emkin was quoted,

“Computers can be a significant benefit in helping an experienced engineer find a better solution, but engineers must first have the skills to solve engineering problems without a computer….Solving engineering problems does not require a computer. Humans were solving engineering problems for hundreds of years before we had computers.”

Virtual Activities

Virtual activities involve user interaction with an animated computer interface. Teachers who decide to use virtual activities in the classroom should consider pre-lesson and post-lesson plans to prepare students for the best possible learning experience. Fourth grade students at The Haverford School, Haverford PA, have explored basic geometry concepts as part of their study of ancient Greece. After reviewing basic geometric shapes from a mathematics textbook, students use a virtual activity on a computer to explore objects from Platonic Solids (http://www.math.utah.edu/~alfeld/math/polyhedra/polyhedra.html , 1997). The Web site enables students to rotate polyhedrons, so that they can see all sides of the object. Students make observations and take notes, before using straws and tape to construct their own structures. Teachers at The Haverford School, Haverford, PA, have reported that using the virtual activity from Platonic Solids (Alfeld, 1997) has been advantageous for students who had difficulty

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conceptualizing polyhedrons, providing an alternative to static two-dimensional graphics from a textbook.

A second virtual activity used at The Haverford School, Haverford, PA, comes from Virtual Manipulatives (http://www.matti.usu.edu/nlvm/nav/vlibrary.html, 2004). The Web site is

organized by grade level and topic, with numerous activities to choose from. A third grade teacher was excited about using Peg Puzzles, and the Magic Triangle from Virtual Manipulatives (Utah State University, 2004) for a centers activity in her classroom. Both activities allow for students to click and drag elements such as pegs, or numbers, to a location on the computer screen to solve a problem. The teacher has organized her math class with six students using Virtual Manipulatives (USU, 2004) on three computers, while other students work in groups of six with real hands-on manipulatives, or directly with the teacher. While the teacher and students have reported that Virtual Manipulatives (USU, 2004) have been challenging and worthwhile, my position is that educators need to use care when planning the structure and duration of virtual activities. The tendency for students to tune-out from their surroundings when using Virtual Manipulatives (USU, 2004) has been observed, and therefore it is suggested that students work with a partner to solve problems collaboratively for periods of no more than 10 to 15 minutes at a time.

Conclusion

Computer games should not be used in the classroom unless they have been selected for relevant curricular skills that can be measured, or areas of study that require students to use other resources for a higher order thinking. Computer simulations are appropriate for students to run on models to see how they might work in the real world, provided that students have an opportunity to apply and test the same principles in a controlled environment. Virtual activities should be selected for specific curricular purposes and limited to small groups for short

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durations, so that students are less likely to tune-out from their surroundings. In topical reading from Technology and the Future (Teich, 9^th ed.) Computer Ethics (Forester and Morrison, 1993), the authors conclude that it is the responsibility of computing educators to make students aware of the social context in which computers are used. Another conclusion from Virtual Schools and E-Learning in K-12 Environments (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 2002) notes that “e-learning may work best when it is combined with some face to face classroom experience.” Whether it be a game, simulation, or virtual activity, social components must be included so that students have opportunities to work collaboratively with others to respond, report, and reflect on their experiences.

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References

Forester, T & Morrison, P. (1993) Computer Ethics. Canterbury Tales and Ethical Dilemas in Computing. Cambridge, MA. Author.

Sunburst Technology Corporation (2004) Empowering Teachers, Inspiring Students, Unlocking Potential. Elgin, IL. Author

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Appendix

Electronic Resources

Alfeld (1997). The Platonic Solids. Available March 31, 2004 at: (http://www.math.utah.edu~alfeld/math/polyhedra/polyhedra.html).

Cognitive Concepts (2003). Put Reading First with Earobics. Available March 30, 2004 at: (http://www.earobics.com/teachers/readingfirst/researchproven.cfm).

Education Week (2004). Technology in Education. Available February 25, 2004 at: (http://www.edweek.org/context/topics/issuespage.cfm?id=96)

Gamesindustry.biz (2003). Grand Theft Auto in the dock over US road killing. Available March 10, 2004 at: (http://www.theregister.co.uk/content/54/32765.html).

International Society for Technology in Education (2002). Technology Foundation Standards for

Students. Available October 10, 2002 at: (http://cnets.iste.org/index2.html).

MiniClip Limited (2004). Shoot ‘em Up. Available April 3, 2004 at: (http://www.miniclip.com)

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (2002). E-Learning Policy Implicaitons for K-12 Educators and Decision Makers. Available March 8, 2004 at: (http://www.ncrel.org/policy/pubs/html/pivol11/apr2002d.htm).

Sanders, J. (2000). Better Buildings, Stronger Structures. Available March 9, 2004 at: (http://gtresearchnews.gatech.edu/reshor/rh-f00/strudl.html).

Teach-nology (2003). Educational Games. Available March 12, 2004 at: (http://www.teach-nology.com/web_tools/games/).

West Point Military Academy (2004). West Point Bridge Designer. Available March 30, 2004 at: (http://www.usma.edu/bridgecontest).

Utah State University (2003). National Library of Virtual Manipulatives – Interactive Mathematics. Available April 2, 2004 at: (http://www.matti.usu.edu/nlvm/nav/vlibrary.html).