GRAYBROOK INSTITUTE SURVEY:
The Second Millennium's Top 20
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he ages of mankind are largely defined by the great men and women who inhabit them, for good or for evil. Recently the Graybrook Institute asked readers to nominate the twenty most influential people of the Second Millennium of the Christian era. Following are the results, which include more than 20 names since our small sampling created several statistical ties. The list is clearly limited and no doubt flawed. Yet a survey of the lives of these individuals makes for a thought-provoking consideration of some of the leading social, cultural, philosophical, scientific and religion influences of the millennium, which have shaped our present age. The Institute does not necessarily agree with all of the choices, but we offer our thanks to those who participated in our survey. |
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1. MARTIN LUTHER (1483-1546)
Topping the list was the great leader of the Protestant Reformation, who, at the midway point of the millennium, reopened the Bible for the western world. Luther's great contributions were to re-establish the Bible as the central authority for all men and to establish the principle that all men have direct access to God through faith in Jesus Christ. Luther's principle of the priesthood of all believers laid the foundation for self-government. It was not anti-authoritarian, but gave the world the doctrine that men who are submitted to the authority of Scripture have the right and ability to order their own lives when pope, council, prince and other established authorities have abandoned the truth.
Luther was born at Eisleben, Germany, in 1483, became a priest in 1507 and was deeply troubled by his own sin, which he believed kept him from fellowship with God. In his theological studies he discovered the biblical doctrine of salvation by grace through faith, soon found himself in defiance of a church which had been deeply corrupted by self-righteousness and purchased remission of sins. Declared an outlaw after his refusal to recant his views, he spent a year in isolation, translating the Scriptures and writing prolifically. When he re-emerged, he was forced to take a stand against lawlessness which some of his followers had instigated in the name of the Reformation. His views eventually became the foundation for the landmark Augsburg Confession, and the movement of ecclesiastical reformation which he started spread throughout Europe, changing the face of the world forever.
2. JOHANNES GUTENBERG (1400-1468)
Luther's Reformation likely could not have succeeded had it not been for the pioneering work of a simple tradesman, also from Germany. Gutenberg was a printer and the inventer of movable type, the essential foundation for mass communication. His best-known product was a 42-line Bible, often called "Gutenberg's Bible." Through his invention, the Bible was brought to the masses; and the works of scholars, thinkers and other communicators were infused into general society. The mass dissemination of ideas had a profound effect on society.
3. KARL MARX (1818-1883)
Founder of international communism, Marx was another German who (literally) revolutionized the world during the latter centuries of the millennium. He studied law but became interested in history and economics. Working from the dialectical philosophy of Georg Wilhem Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), Marx developed revolutionary principles attacking the state as the instrument of oppression with religion and culture as allied ideologies of the capitalist class. His views eventually swept through most of the civilized world and have vastly shaped government and economic systems ever since.
4. JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (1712-1778)
Political philosopher, educator and essayist, Rosseau emphasized the natural goodness of man and argued that institutionalized life corrupted that goodness. Thus dismissing the traditional biblical view of the natural depravity of man and Scripture's cultural mandates, Rosseau argued that governments, rather than being ordained by God, were formed democratically by men in "social contract" and that education was fundamental to human order and development. His philosophies greatly influenced the French Revolution and the Romantic Movement, setting forth the notion of the "noble savage" and the tenets for latter-day environmentalism.
5. SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727)
In the vanguard of scientific achievement during the 17th century, Newton's genius laid foundations upon which science remains structured to this day. His groundbreaking work, The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, rewrote the whole science of moving bodies and his three laws of motion formed the basis for all physical science. Clearly a theist, he may not, however, have had a fully orthodox view of the Christian Gospel. Yet he correctly saw that order in the universe had its source in the "counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful" God who governs all things as Lord of the universe. Still he may have unwittingly helped promote the secularization of natural science by his belief in the neutrality of human reason and perception.
6. ALBERT EINSTEIN (1879-1955)
Einstein ranks with Galileo and Newton as one the great conceptual revisionists of man's understanding of the university. His theory of relativity was a completely new way of looking at space, time and gravitational forces. This theory undermined the absolutes of Newtonian science, and had major implications for religions and philosophies which view God and His revelation as absolute points of reference in the universe for truth and morality. Einstein's conclusions in the realm of energy later enabled scientists to tap the vast energy sources within the atom, leading to development of nuclear weapons and new sources of electrical power.
7. GEORGE WASHINGTON (1732-1799)
Leader of the American War for Independence and first president of the United States of America, Washington is viewed as the father of a nation which subsequently became the greatest world power ever. In the face of impossible circumstances, Washington's integrity and determination kept the vastly inferior force of the Continental Army together, making eventual victory for the colonists' cause possible. His virtuous character and firm political convictions served as an anchor for the new nation in its fledgling days.
8. TIE: OLIVER CROMWELL (1599-1658) and CHARLES DARWIN (1809-1862)
Our nominators have given equal status to these two widely disparate historical figures. If Luther gave the world the principle of freedom of conscience and thought leading to self-government of man under God, Cromwell firmly established the principle of representative self-government under God's law. Cromwell led the 17th-century parliamentarian revolt against England's monarchy and formed the world's first representative republic. As England's Puritan leader, he reorganized the national church and established the principle of religious toleration. Under Cromwell, the British Commonwealth became the head and champion of Protestant Europe.
Darwin developed the theory of biological evolution and in so doing used science to attack the historical truth of the divine origins of the universe. By eliminating God as Creator, Darwinism has vastly eroded man's recognition of God's claim of ownership and His right to direct human endeavor. As Charles Hodge has put it: "The conclusion of the whole matter is that the denial of design in nature is virtually the denial of God." Darwin's theories of the survival of the fittest and natural selection laid the foundations for class and racial warfare, the Nazi Holocaust and all similar social upheavals which characterized the late centuries of the millennium and our present age.
9. TIE: CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS (1451-1506) and JOHN CALVIN (1509-1564)
If the "New World" has played any role in the development of the 2nd millennium, Columbus must be given a major share of the credit. Undoubtedly one of the greatest mariners of all time, his courage, ambition, determination and spiritual vision clearly earn him his ranking on this list.
Calvin, the father figure of Reformed theology, left a double legacy to Protestantism by systematizing its doctrine and organizing its ecclesiastical discipline. It was his system that inspired the Puritans, who so profoundly shaped the British, Scottish, Dutch and American landscapes during the period of the millennium in which these great powers influenced the course of world events. Calvin's emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God and his application of this doctrine to the creation of an active worldview has had monumental impact on humankind.
10. SULAIMAN (THE MAGNIFICENT) (1494-1566)
Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to 1566, Sulaiman conquered vast territories in the Middle East, Mediterranean, and Eastern Europe. He more than once threatened to overrun much of the rest of Europe. His system of laws regulating land tenure earned him the name "lawgiver," and he was a great patron of the arts and architecture. His conquests spread the Muslim religion to huge territories, and his inclusion on this list reflects the major role which Islam is playing in our time. It is probable that Islam will continue to be a dominant factor on the global scene in the coming centuries. Indeed, Muslim-Christian conflicts loom as potentially the most substantial geopolitical issues of the new millennium.
11. ADOLF HITLER (1889-1945)
Though he arrived on the world scene late in the millennium, it is difficult to understate how profoundly Hitler's insane evil changed the world. The global war which he spawned permanently changed global alignments. The partitioning of Europe between eastern and western victors in World War II led directly to the Cold War which shaped international life for the last half of the past century and still affects world politics. His philosophies, though widely repudiated, linger in many quarters, not the least of which is the worldwide abortion holocaust of our day.
12. THOMAS A. EDISON (1847-1931)
Inventor and physicist, his vast array of creations, including the light bulb, the phonograph, and motion picture equipment, has had a profound effect on technology, communications and the human society which now is so strongly influenced through the media associated with his contraptions. He held patents for more than a thousand inventions. His contributions to technology in a what became a technological age earn him his ranking here.
13. TIE: RENÉ DESCARTES (1596-1650) and ST. THOMAS AQUINAS (1225-1274)
Rationalist philosopher and mathematician, Descartes, though a Catholic all his life, became dissatisfied with the Scholasticism of Aquinas. While serving in the army, he conceived it to be his task to reformulate human knowledge. He claimed that one should doubt all of one's sense experiences, even the deliverances of reason, but that one cannot doubt one's own existence as a thinking being. His famous construct, "I think therefore I am," formed the basis for the rationalistic Enlightenment, a turning point in man's quest for truth. The turn was away from divine revelation and toward human autonomy. He revived dualism — the abject separation of mind and body, and thus profoundly influenced the later separation of religion from material life.
Aquinas, the greatest Roman Catholic thinker of the era, advanced ideas which exercised enormous intellectual authority throughout the Church. In his philosophical writings, he tried to combine and reconcile Aristotle's scientific rationalism with Christian doctrines of faith and revelation. He sought to prove the existence of God in this way and laid the foundations for the Rationalism of later centuries. His ideas provide the framework for Catholic theology even today.
14. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (1564-1616)
Considered the greatest of all men of letters, Shakespeare's literary works, now more than 400 years old, remain as popular as ever. His plays and poetry are recognized universally as great literature and have been translated into many languages. His plays are performed throughout the world. Shakespeare's works continue to stimulate research by scholars, performance by actors and new plays and novels by authors. In the world of the literary arts, he has few rivals.
15. MARIE CURIE (1867-1934)
The only woman nominated by our survey participants, Madam Curie is credited with the discovery of radium, the foundation for many future developments in radiology, radioactivity, medicine and nuclear technology. She shared the 1903 Nobel Prize for Physics. She died of leukemia, probably caused by long exposure to radiation.
16. TIE: MAO TSE-TUNG (1893-1976), NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1769-1821), and SALADIN (1137-1193)
The son of peasants, Mao led the Communist revolution which still holds sway over billions of people in the world's most populous nation, China. His brand of guerilla warfare was widely adopted by Communist revolutionaries the world over during the Cold War era. Domestically, he pursued a radical and far-reaching attempt to transform traditional Chinese society and its economy, using thought reform, indoctrination, and psychological tranformation of the masses. His programs led to widespread oppressions, persecutions, starvations, murders and cultureal chaos. Since his death, his use of the masses for political purposes, his economic changes, and his conception of political power have been increasingly criticized inside and outside of China. But the oppressive regime he brought to power remains in place, to the detriment of millions of the Chinese, especially the growing Christian element.
Napoleon ranks among the greatest conquerers of all time. His meteoric rise to imperial power and his military genius vastly shaped Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries and were instrumental in the delineation of national alignments which made war the defining characteristic of Europe during his era and years to come.
Saladin's nomination, like that of Sulaiman, no doubt reflects the extent to which Islam has influenced the course of world events, especially in the Middle East. Saladin was the sultan of Egypt and Syria and the leader of the Muslims against the Crusaders in Palestine. His wars against the Christian world greatly affected the histories of England and France.
17. GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642)
Astronomer and mathematician, born in Pisa, Italy. Among his great scientific achievements were the improvement of the refracting telescope, his discovery of the laws of uniformly accelerating motion towards the Earth, the parabolic path of projectiles, and the law that all bodies have weight. His bold advocacy of the Copernican theory (see next entry) brought severe censure from the Roman Church, and he was forced to retract before the Inquisition, though the validity of his scientific work was formally recognized by the Vatican centuries later in 1933.
18. TIE: NICOLAS COPERNICUS (1473-1543), THOMAS JEFFERSON (1743-1826), and KING JOHN OF ENGLAND (1199-1216)
Copernicus is the founder of modern astromony. He first put forth the theory of the Earth's daily rotation about its own axis and annual rotation around the Sun. As a challenge to the ancient teaching of the Earth as the center of the solar system, his ideas met a hostile reception when first published. Yet his work in astronomy and mathematics have proven absolutely essential to modern science to this day.
Jefferson's contribution to the shaping of America was profound. As the author of the Declaration of Independence, he was one of the greatest expounders of human and political rights as derived from God. His accomplishments as a statesman, architect, scientist, educator and humanist are recognized throughout the world.
King John, one of history's most famous usurpers, murderers, heretics, and general scoundrels, is best known as the reluctant signer of the Magna Carta, the foundation of England's constitution and law, which in turn became the models for American law and that of other nations throughout the centuries and continents of the world.
19. TIE: MAXIMILIEN ROBESPIERRE (1758-1794) and ABRAHAM LINCOLN (1809-1865)
Robespierre, leader of the French Revolution and its Reign of Terror, became a model for ruthless exercise of power. His bloody rule has proven to be the blueprint for radicalism and terrorism by revolutionaries ever since. His political philosophies shaped the doctrine of direct democracy, a doctrine which consistently has led to mob action and the trampling of the rights of minorities.
Lincoln, known for his championing of the rights of minorities, nevertheless represented a turning point toward government centralization in America. A folk hero in his early political life, his actions as U.S. president during the Civil War won him both widespread hatred and respect. His assassination following the end of the war earned him martyr status for his advocacy of emanicipation of slaves. He is widely revered for his integrity, fairness and directness of speech and action.
20. TIE: MOHANDAS GANDHI (1869-1948) and DAVID HUME (1711-1776)
Mahatma Gandi, known as "the great soul," was venerated during his lifetime as a moral teacher, a reformer who sought an India free from caste as from materialism, and a dedicated patriot who gave the Home Rule movement a new quality, and thus contributed to the breakdown of colonialism. In Asia particularly he has been regarded as a great influence for peace, whose teachings held a message not only for India but for much of the world. He influenced non-violent racial movements from South Africa to America, yet his followers often resorted to violence nevertheless. He also contributed to new global interest in pantheistic, eastern philosophies.
Hume, whose name is clearly not a household word, espoused moral and political philosophies which have become norms in our secular, atheistic world. His views inspired Immanual Kant, a central figure in the humanistic Enlightenment. Hume's seminal works include A Treatise of Human Nature, Essays Moral and Political, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, and Political Discourses.
