Ancient Egypt
(?7000 BC- 30 BC)
- Early Egyptian Civilization (?7000-2686 BC)
- Epipaleolitic Age
- 7000 BC: hunters and fishers along the Nile River valley began farming; they grew barley, wheat, and vegetables for food; they called their land Kemet ("rich, black soil") after the fertile soil left by annual floods.
- 6500-6000 BC: ancient Egyptians developed semi-permanent "camps" at El Kab in southern (Upper) Egypt, but due to annual floods, they only lived there during spring and summer.
- Predynastic Period
- 5500 BC: the Badarian cultures of Upper Egypt began making luxurious items that not only had function, but value, including furniture, ivory combs, figurines, tableware, beads, shell jewelry, and black-topped clay pottery; the Faiyum cultures of northern (Lower) Egypt remained separate and still depended mostly on hunting and fishing.
- 5110 BC: the domestication of cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats was developed in Nubia (in the deserts south of Upper Egypt), either by their own discovery or by an introduction from Mesopotamia.
- 5000 BC: extensive irrigation systems were built by ancient Egyptians to carry Nile water into the desert.
- 4500 BC: the Amratian cultures of Upper Egypt began the practice of mummification, in which, to preserve the body, they extracted most of the internal organs, filled the corpse with preserving fluid, and wrapped the body in bandages; they made pottery decorated with simple shapes and pictures and lived in individual clay brick dwellings.
- 4000 BC: because fertile land was limited, those in Upper Egypt were forced to migrate into Lower Egypt where the two cultures mixed to form the Gerzean cultures; they built underground tombs for their mummified dead and made pottery decorated with realistic depictions of animals, historical events, and religious idols.
- 3400 BC: a numbering system was developed different from all previous; instead of lines denoting each single unit, the Egyptians made a symbol for the number "ten."
- 3100 BC: a writing system was developed in order to keep records of property and religious rituals; it was called hieroglyphics and was made up of pictograms (pictures) describing objects and ideograms describing ideas or actions.
- 1st Dynasty and 2nd Dynasty
- 3100 BC: Menes, king of Upper Egypt, conquered Lower Egypt and united the two kingdoms; to symbolize the unity Menes built his capital at Memphis (where Upper and Lower Egypt met) and wore a double crown, a high white helmet (for Upper Egypt) surrounded by an open band-like red crown (for Lower Egypt).
- 3100-2686 BC: the 1st and 2nd dynasties developed one of the strongest kingships ever, with absolute power over a strongly unified government; pharaohs owned all the land in Egypt and received one-fifth of the crops grown by farmers; they presided over a bureaucracy of royal officials, priests, and local governors, known as nomarchs.
- 2800 BC: papyrus, a sedge plant, was used to make a material on which to write (the English "paper" comes from "papyrus").
- Old Kingdom (?2686-2055 BC)
- 3rd Dynasty and 4th Dynasty
- 2686-2494 BC: the 3rd and 4th dynasties ruled during the golden age; their most famous achievements were the construction of the great pyramids, produced by laborers organized by the nomarchs; these first pyramids were made from sun-dried bricks, which Egyptians believed to be petrified rays of sun.
- 2667 BC: Zoser of the 3rd Dynasty became pharaoh; he commanded his architect, Imhotep, to create the first monumental structure of stone, the Step Pyramid at Sakkara, as his tomb; the huge blocks of stone were floated over the flooded land from the Nile.
- 2613 BC: Snefru became pharaoh and began the 4th Dynasty; he had his pyramid (the first true pyramid because it did not have steps) built at Dahshor; he was one of the first warrior kings, leading campaigns into Nubia, Libya, and Sinai; he promoted commerce, mining, and brought prosperity to Egypt.
- 2589 BC: Khufu succeeded his father Snefru and commanded the building of Great Pyramid at Giza; the pyramid contained the tomb of Khufu as well as chambers filled with fabulous treasures.
- 2566 BC: Radjedef succeeded his father Khufu; he introduced Ra, the sun god and king of the gods, into the Egyptian religion.
- 2558 BC: Khafre succeeded his brother Radjedef; he commanded the construction of one of the three pyramids at Giza as his tomb and also the Great Sphinx in his likeness.
- 2532 BC: Menkaure succeeded Khafre; he commanded the construction of the smallest of the three large pyramids at Giza as his tomb.
- 5th Dynasty and 6th Dynasty
- 2494-2181 BC: the 5th and 6th dynasties encouraged the development of navigation, industry, sciences, astronomy (the first solar calendar based on 365 days), and medicine (surgery, the circulatory system, and antiseptics); despite heavy taxes (which caused resentment among common people) the huge expense of constructing and maintaining the pyramids exhausted the treasury.
- 2321 BC: Pepi I became pharaoh and began the 6th dynasty; heavy taxes caused a assassination conspiracy against him and indicated signs of decreasing royal authority.
- 2278 BC: Pepi II became pharaoh; descent among nomarchs put power in the hands of the vizier (chief minister); nomarchs became rapidly more powerful as central authority over the economy became diminished by decrees of exemption from taxes by the nomes (districts).
- First Intermediate Period (7th-11th Dynasties)
- 2181-2125 BC: the 7th and 8th dynasties marked the beginning of a 200 year period of disorder; famine plagued the land, the Bedouins (nomadic Arabs from surrounding deserts) raided cities, and the peasants revolted against high taxes; nomarchs seized complete control of their nomes and civil wars between them disrupted commerce.
- 2160-2025 BC: the 9th and 10th dynasties ruled simultaneously with the 7th and 8th dynasties; their capital was at Heraclepolis, the political center of power for the northern nomarchs, and this began a struggle between the rival southern nomarchs at Thebes.
- 2134-1991 BC: the 11th dynasty ruled simultaneously with the 9th and 10th dynasties; their capital was at Thebes, the political center of power for southern nomarchs; they identified with the common people, gave all the right to mummification, and undertook the large projects of draining swamps, canals, and the temples at Luxor and Karnak.
- Middle Kingdom (2055-1570 BC)
- 11th Dynasty and 12th Dynasty
- 2055 BC: Mentuhotep II of the 11th dynasty became pharaoh and reunified Egypt under his authority; he was able to maintain control and stability over the whole kingdom by limiting the power of the nomes and their nomarchs.
- 1985-1795 BC: the 12th dynasty encouraged a type of renaissance in which architecture, art, jewelry, and especially literature flourished; this was the "Golden Age" of Egyptian literature in which stories like Tale of Sinuhe (Sinbad) became famous.
- 1985 BC: Amenemhet I became pharaoh and began the 12th dynasty; he demanded loyalty from the nomes and rebuilt the government in the new capital at Faiyum.
- 1965 BC: Sesostris I succeeded his father Amenemhet I; he campaigned against the Libyans and established trade with Syria, Mesopotamia, Crete, and Nubia (in which he also built fortresses).
- 1880 BC: Sesostris II became pharaoh and conquered Al Faiyum, a territory in northern Egypt.
- 1874 BC: Sesostris III succeeded his father Sesostris II; he commanded the construction of a canal at the first cataract of the Nile, formed a standing army, and abolished the nomes by divided the kingdom into three regions (each controlled by an official under the vizier).
- Second Intermediate Period (13th-17th Dynasties)
- 1795-1650 BC: the 13th and 14th dynasties marked the beginning of a 250 year period of disorder; the 13th dynasty maintained nominal control of southern Egypt and Nubia, but the 14th dynasty simultaneously ruled northern Egypt.
- 1650-1550 BC: the Hyksos, a group of Palestinian conquerors, swept across Egypt and established the 15th dynasty at Memphis; the 15th dynasty extracted tribute from the 16th dynasty, in northern Egypt, and the 17th dynasty, in southern Egypt; the Hyksos brought with them horse-drawn chariots and taught their art to the Egyptians.
- 1555-1550 BC: the 17th dynasty ruler Kamose united the southern Egyptian nobles under his rule, at Thebes, in order to expel the Hyksos; he died and his brother, Ahmose, continued the fight for independence.
- New Kingdom (1550-715 BC)
- 18th Dynasty
- 1550 BC: Ahmose I defeated the Hyksos, became pharaoh, and began the 18th dynasty; he unified Egypt, reclaimed much of the land, reestablished the central government, and balanced power between himself and the nomarchs.
- 1570-1295 BC: the 18th dynasty established Egypt as an empire stretching from Nubia to the Euphrates River; the empire became rich with the tribute it collected from conquered territories and the taxes it put on trade.
- 1525 BC: Amenhotep I became pharaoh; he conquered lands in Nubia and in Palestine; his tomb in Karnak set the precedent for hiding the pharaoh's burial chamber.
- 1504 BC: Thutmose I succeeded his brother-in-law Amenhotep I; he conquered lands near the Euphrates River; his tomb was the first in the Valley of the Kings.
- 1492 BC: Thutmose II succeeded his father Thutmose I; he married the royal princess Hatshepsut to strengthen his claim to the throne and led campaigns against the Bedouins and Nubians.
- 1479 BC: Hatshepsut was made regent to her stepchild Thutmose III, who succeeded his father Thutmose II; she was crowned the first woman pharaoh and sent trading expeditions into Somalia which opened up trade for ivory, incense, ebony, and gold.
- 1458 BC: Thutmose III succeeded his stepmother Hatshepsut; he organized an army and navy which reconquered Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia (which had broken away under his joint rule with Hatshepsut) and then maintained diplomacy with the Hittites.
- 1390 BC: Amenhotep III became pharaoh; he maintained peace through the diplomacy recorded in the Amarna Letters and commanded the building of large architectural projects including the temple at Luxor and the Colossi of Memnon.
- 1352 BC: Amenhotep IV succeeded his father Amenhotep III; he changed his name to Akhenaton and moved the capital from Thebes to Akhetaton, all in order to establish the monotheist religion of Aton, the omnipresent sun god, but these changes lost him the support of the military and of the commoners who worshipped the traditional gods.
- 1336 BC: the 8 year old Tutankhaton succeeded his father-in-law Akhenaton; he changed his name to Tutankhamon and moved the capital back to Thebes, all to show that he opposed his predecessor's teachings; he is best known for his rich tomb.
- 19th Dynasty and 20th Dynasty
- 1295 BC: Ramses I succeeded Horemheb, for whom he had served as vizier and military commander, and began the 19th dynasty.
- 1295-1069 BC: the 19th and 20th dynasties, although fairly successful in battles, were extremely weakened by the constant wars and raids from the Hittites and other surrounding peoples.
- 1294 BC: Seti I succeeded his father Ramses I; he ordered the construction of the temple at Abydos, reconquered Palestine, and fought the Libyans and Hittites.
- 1279 BC: Ramses II succeeded his father Seti I; he fought a long war with the Hittites, commemorated his victories with great monuments (such as at Abu Simbel), and ended the war through the first written treaty in history by which the disputed lands were divided and he married the Hittite princess.
- 1213 BC: Merneptah succeeded his father Ramses II; he defeated the Sea Peoples, conquerors from the Aegean Sea, and destroyed Israel.
- 1184 BC: Ramses III of the 20th dynasty became pharaoh; he ordered the construction of many temples and defeated the repeated attacks by the Libyans and the Sea Peoples.
- Third Intermediate Period (21st-24th Dynasties)
- 1069-715 BC: the priesthood of Amon established the 21st dynasty at Tanis, which was followed by the 22nd dynasty at Bubastis; civil wars between Tanis and Bubastis left Egypt to weak to defend against the constant attacks from the Libyans who took over the 22nd dynasty.
- 818-715 BC: the 23rd dynasty was established simultaneously with the 22nd dynasty by Libyans in Tanis; in southern Egypt, the 24th dynasty took power and was also simultaneously in existence with the 22nd and 23rd dynasties.
- Decline of Ancient Egypt (715-30 BC)
- Late Period (25th-31st Dynasties)
- 747-656 BC: the Kushites (Nubians) took control of most of Egypt and established the 25th dynasty; the 25th dynasty existed simultaneously with the 22nd, 23rd, and 24th dynasties, but those dynasties fell by 715 BC; as the Kushites weakened, the Assyrians conquered Egypt and took control of the 25th dynasty from the Kushites.
- 656 BC: Psamtik I, the regent ruler of Egypt for Assyria, renounced allegiance to Assyria and established the 26th dynasty; he unified northern Egypt under his rule, established his capital at Sais, strengthened the borders, reformed the army, encouraged commerce, and eventually captured Thebes.
- 525-404 BC: the Persian Empire conquered Egypt and established vassal rulers as the 27th dynasty.
- 404-343 BC: the 28th dynasty unified northern Egypt under one rule and established its capital at Sais; the 29th dynasty followed and established diplomatic relations with Greece against Persia; the 30th dynasty marked a struggle between Persia and Egypt over Egypt's independence.
- 343-332 BC: the Persian Empire reconquered Egypt and established vassal rulers as the 31st dynasty.
- Ptolemaic Dynasty
- 332 BC: Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire and gained control of Egypt; he appointed one of his generals, Ptolemy of Lagos, and also a Greek citizen in Egypt, Cleomenes of Naucratis, to govern Egypt and Libya.
- 323 BC: Alexander the Great died and his empire was divided between his generals who fought to gain control of the empire; Ptolemy established himself as a great general of Egypt, resisting invasions from enemy generals and conquering Palestine and Cyrenaica.
- 305 BC: Ptolemy I assumed the title king of Egypt and established the Ptolemaic dynasty at Alexandria; he established the Library of Alexandria and competed with the Seleucids, another Hellenic dynasty, in Syria for supremacy of the Mediterranean Sea.
- 305-205 BC: the Ptolemaic dynasty established its capital at Alexandria as a great intellectual center of the world; although not Egyptian, they observed many traditional customs including the dress, architecture, and religion, but were still looked upon as outsiders.
- 285 BC: Ptolemy II succeeded his father Ptolemy I, who abdicated; he encourage literature, expanded the Library of Alexandria, and established Egypt as the dominant sea power in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
- 246 BC: Ptolemy III succeeded his father Ptolemy II; he invaded Syria to avenge the death of his nephew (who was heir to the Syrian throne), kept Egyptian sea dominance, and established Egypt as a wealthy and powerful nation.
- 205 BC: Ptolemy V became king of Egypt; he was praised on the "Rosetta Stone" in the hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek languages and, during his reign, Syria and Macedonia created an alliance against Egypt.
- 205-30 BC: the Ptolemaic dynasty lost much of its power to nationalist Egyptian leaders who openly revolted against foreign rule; they preserved their wealth, but lost much of their territory to the Roman Empire which began to intervene increasingly in Egyptian affairs.
- 180 BC: Ptolemy VI succeeded his father Ptolemy V; during his reign, Syria invaded and made Egypt a vassal state; the Roman Empire intervened, freed Egypt, and dividing it between the brothers Ptolemy VI, Ptolemy VII, and Ptolemy VIII; Ptolemy V was also offered the Syrian crown by the people of Antioch, but he declined in favor of the legitimate heir.
- 51 BC: the 12 year old Ptolemy XIII and his sister Cleopatra succeeded jointly to their father Ptolemy XII provided that they marry; because they did not marry, Ptolemy XIII exiled Cleopatra to Syria.
- 47 BC: Cleopatra became the lover of Julius Caesar, who killed Ptolemy XIII and made Cleopatra co-ruler with her other brother Ptolemy XIV; she lived with Caesar in Rome as a concubine and they had a child Ptolemy Caesarion.
- 44 BC: Caesar was assassinated, Cleopatra returned to Egypt where she poisoned Ptolemy XIV, and established herself as co-ruler with her son Ptolemy XV; Mark Antony, a member of the Second Roman Triumvirate, went to Alexandria where he became Cleopatra's lover and she bore him twins.
- 36-34 BC: Mark Antony became commander of the East, he married Cleopatra, and they had a third child; after returning from a successful campaign against the Parthians, he divided the eastern Roman empire between Cleopatra and her children.
- 32 BC: Octavian, a rival member of the Second Roman Triumvirate, declared war against Cleopatra and Mark Antony because of their love affairs and political games.
- 31 BC: Octavian attacked Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the naval battle of Actium; when Cleopatra retreated to Alexandria, Mark Antony was also forced to retreat; Octavian followed them both into Egypt.
- 30 BC: as Octavian proceeded to capture Antony, Antony heard a rumor that Cleopatra committed suicide and he did the same; Cleopatra, hearing of Antony's suicide and also afraid of the humiliation of Roman triumph, poisoned herself; 20 days later Octavian killed Ptolemy XV Caesarion and declared himself pharaoh, Egypt was henceforth a Roman province.
