Ancient Rome
(753 BC-AD 476)
- Legendary Rome (753-510 BC)
- Early Inhabitants of the Italian Peninsula
- 1300 BC: the Illyrians, from the northeastern Balkans, colonized the eastern coasts of Italy.
- 1152 BC: the Latins, an Indo-European people, migrated to central Italy and founded Latium (the Latin League), a group of cities, the most important being Alba Longa; they made iron tools and kept ashes of the dead in urns in pozzi ("holes in the ground").
- 1030 BC: the Greeks, from the southern Balkans, colonized the southern coasts of Italy and Sicily, the most importants being Cumae, Syracuse, and Neapolis (Naples).
- 1000 BC: the Umbrian-Sabellians settled throughout the inland portions of Italy; they buried their dead in fosse ("graves").
- 900 BC: the Etruscans, from Asia Minor, migrated to northern and western Italy; they were the most civilized, developing the arch and great art.
- 800 BC: the Carthaginians, from north Africa, colonized western Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica.
- Founding of Rome
- 753 BC: Latin colonists led by Romulus and Remus, the twin sons of the king of Alba Longa, founded Rome and Romulus became its first king; he went to war with the Sabines and conquered them.
- 715 BC: Numa Pompilius succeeded Romulus and introduced Etruscan religious customs into Roman culture.
- 673 BC: Tullus Hostilius succeeded Numa Pompilius, destroyed Alba Longa, and fought the Sabines.
- 641 BC: Ancus Marcius succeeded Tullus Hostilius, built the port of Ostia, and conquered many Latin towns.
- 616 BC: Lucius Tarquinius Priscus succeeded Ancus Marcius and began the Etruscan rule in Rome; he led military campaigns against neighboring peoples, constructed many public buildings in the city, and influenced the art and mythology of Rome.
- 578 BC: Servius Tullius succeeded Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, created a new constitution, and enlarged Rome's boundaries.
- 540 BC: the Etruscans and Carthaginians defeated the Greeks at the naval battle of Alalia, assuring Etruscan naval supremacy.
- 534 BC: Lucius Tarquinius Superbus succeeded Servius Tullius and ruled as a tyrant.
- 510 BC: Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was overthrown, the kingship was abolished, and a republic was established.
- Roman Republic (510-27 BC)
- Conquest of Italy (510-264 BC)
- 510 BC: in place of the king, two consuls were chosen annually by the Assembly, made up of all Roman citizens.
- 498-493 BC: the Latin War ended with the Roman recognition of Latin autonomy.
- 494 BC: the republic became altered: it contained the Senate - 300 patricians who served 1 year and passed laws; the Assembly of Centuries - 2 Consuls who served 1 year and made military and judiciary decisions, Censors who served 5 years and registered taxes and votes, and Praetors who served 1 year as court judges; the Assembly of Tribes - 10 plebeian members of the Tribune who served 1 year and could veto, and Aediles who were incharge of games and grain.
- 474 BC: Syracuse, a Greek colony, allied with Rome and defeated the Etruscans in the naval battle of Cumae.
- 451 BC: the Laws of the Twelve Tables were created by the 10 man decemvirate; it codified customary law, civil law, criminal law, public law, religious law, trial procedure, and prohibited the marriage of plebeians to patricians.
- 445 BC: the Canuleian Laws legalized the marriage of plebeians to patricians.
- 449-390 BC: the Romans fought against the Etruscans, the Volscians, and the Aequians.
- 413 BC: the Etruscans, allied with Athens, attacked Syracuse and regained its sea power.
- 396 BC: Rome conquered the Etruscan city of Veii, gaining control of the Etruscans.
- 387 BC: the Gauls, led by Brennus, defeated the Romans at Allia and captured Rome, burning the city.
- 380 BC: the Servian Wall was built around Rome.
- 367 BC: the Licinian-Sextian Laws eased debts, fixed size of property acquired from public lands, abolition consular power over military, allowed for plebeian Senators, and required that one consul be plebeian and one be patrician.
- 367-300 BC: all political positions were open to plebeians; the new aristocracy was made up of patricians and wealthy plebeian families.
- 343-290 BC: Rome defeated the Samnites, Volscians, Latins, and Hernicans, gaining control of central Italy.
- 338 BC: Rome suppressed a Latin and Volscian revolt and dissolved the Latin League.
- 300 BC: the Senate became the most powerful governing body, dealing with war, foreign alliances, colonies, and state finances; the military was expanded, new roads were built throughout Italy, and Rome allied with surrounding tribes allowing them citizenship.
- 283 BC: Rome defeated an alliance of the Etruscans, Umbrians, Gauls, Lucanians, Bruttians, and Samnites, forcing them to pay tribute.
- 282-272 BC: Rome defeated an alliance of the Greek colony of Tarentum (Taranto) and Epirus.
- 264 BC: Rome conquered all remaining tribes of the Italian peninsula.
- Punic Wars (264-146 BC)
- 264-241 BC: the First Punic War occurred.
- 264 BC: Rome allied with the Mamertines (Campanian mercenaries) and attacked Messina, Sicily in the hope of driving out the Carthaginians.
- 260 BC: Rome defeated the Carthage in the naval battle of Mylae; they used a 5-oared ship modeled after a Punic vessel they found stranded and with the corvus, a long pole used to connect two ships, they could fight in hand-to-hand combat.
- 256 BC: the Roman army, led by Marcus Atilius Regulus, defeated the Carthaginians at Cape Ecnomus and established a base in North Africa.
- 255 BC: the Carthaginians drove Marcus Atilius Regulus out of North Africa at the battle of Tunis
- 250 BC: Rome defeated Carthage in the naval battle of Panormus.
- 249 BC: Carthage defeated Rome in the naval battle of Drepanum.
- 241 BC: the Romans defeated Carthage in the naval battle of Aegates; Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica were surrendered to the Romans.
- 241-228 BC: Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian general, built an army in Spain.
- 228 BC: Hamilcar Barca died and his son, Hannibal, became leader of the Carthaginian forces in Spain.
- 219 BC: Hannibal conquered Saguntum, a Spanish city allied with Rome.
- 218-201 BC: the Second Punic War occurred.
- 218 BC: Hannibal took a large army across Spain, Gaul, and the Alps to attack the Romans.
- 216 BC: Hannibal defeated the Romans at Lake Trasimeno, defeated 10,000 Romans at the Battle of Cannae, and "scorched the earth" around Italy when the Romans took a Fabian policy (a policy to hold back).
- 212 BC: Rome conquered Syracuse; Hannibal conquered Tarentum.
- 211 BC: Rome conquered Capua.
- 207 BC: Hasdrubal, Hannibal's brother, led an army through the same route as Hannibal, was defeated, and killed at the Metaurus River in northern Italy; the Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus the Elder defeated Carthage in Spain.
- 204 BC: Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus brought an army to North Africa.
- 202 BC: Hannibal was recalled to Africa and was defeated by Rome at the battle of Zama, ending the Second Punic War; Spain surrendered to Rome.
- 202-149 BC: Carthage continued to be commercially successful; Cato the Elder gave speeches in Rome demanding "Delenda est Carthago" (Carthage must be destroyed).
- 190 BC: Hannibal and Syria allied against Rome, but were defeated at Magnesia and forced to surrender.
- 183 BC: Rome demanded that Hannibal surrender once again and he refused by committed suicide by poison.
- 149-146 BC: the Third Punic War occurred.
- 149 BC: a minor Carthaginian breach of treaty infuriated the Romans.
- 146 BC: a Roman army, led by Scipio the Younger, captured the city of Carthage; they destroyed the entire city, leaving only rubble; and sold the Carthaginians into slavery; Rome was in complete control of the Mediterranean Sea.
- Macedonian Wars (215-168 BC)
- 217 BC: Philip V of Macedonia allied with the Illyrians, an enemy of Rome, in the hope of gaining Illyrian territory.
- 215 BC: Macedonia allied with Carthage, due to their successes against Rome.
- 212 BC: Rome allied with the Aetolian League against Macedonia.
- 211 BC: Rome allied with Sparta.
- 209 BC: Rome allied with Pergamum.
- 198 BC: Rome allied and subjugated the Achaean League against Macedonia.
- 197 BC: the Roman general Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeated Philip at the Battle of Cynocephalae and forced him to relinquish Illyrian lands, surrender his fleet, and pay compensation.
- 189 BC: the Aetolians allied with Syria against Rome; Syria was defeated by Rome and the Aetolians surrendered.
- 184-181 BC: Philip attempted failed to gain support against Rome in the Balkans.
- 168 BC: the Roman general Lucius Aemilius Paullus defeated and captured 1000 Achaeans including Perseus, son and successor of Philip, and the historian Polybius.
- 146 BC: the Romans destroyed Corinth and made Greece and Macedonia a Roman province, with exception to Athens and Thebes.
- Problems in Rome
- treasure changed Rome's value; Rome became greedy and corrupt; in part this was do to how provinces were governed: Proconsuls ruled with absolute power and taxes were collected by tax companies.
- grain filled the markets, hurting grain farmers of Rome; those farmers were forced to sell their lands to patricians, who turned it into Latifundia; the poverty-stricken farmers moved in large masses to Rome and other major Italian cities.
- slaves became a large part of the population; they were a threat, because they could revolt, shove away free labor, make Rome lazy (in slave societies, work ethics are not respected and work is considered lowly), and they could choose not to work hard; these things could make it impossible for new innovations to come around.
- Roman Civil Wars (133-27 BC)
- with plebeian gains of power, several wealthy plebeian families combined with patrician families; this aristocratic ruling class became selfish, arrogant, and addicted to luxury; tension between them and the pure patrician families built up.
- 133 BC: Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was elected tribune and killed that same year.
- 123 BC: Gaius Sempronius Gracchus was elected tribune.
- Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and his brother Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (they were known as the Graechi) tried to help poorer citizens and solve many of Rome's internal problems; the grain problem was solved by a 75% tariff on imports, dumping grain in the sea, grain dole (giving grain away), creating a set grain price, and setting quotas on imports; the landlessness problem was solved by limiting land ownership, land redistribution, and resettling land; the slave problem was solved by outlawing slaves and public works; these proposals resulted in riots.
- 121 BC: Gaius Sempronius Gracchus was killed.
- 106 BC: consul Gaius Marius overthrew Jugurthat, king of Numidia in Africa; he also defeated the Cimbri and Teutons, German tribes, in southern Gaul and northern Italy; these victories increased his military prestige of Rome.
- 91 BC: Marcus Livius Drusus, a tribune, was assassinated after attempted to help poor citizens and Italian armies by giving them citizenship.
- 90-88 BC: the Italian armies warred against Rome in the Social (Marsian) War, trying to create a new government and a new constitution; the Italians were defeated, but were granted full citizenship by the Romans.
- 88 BC: Gaius Marius, the spokesman and general of the plebeians, and Lucius Cornelius Sulla, the general of the patricians, warred to see who would command the expeditionary force against Mithridates VI, king of Pontus; Marius was the first Roman to allow any person in his army; Sulla defeated Marius, by marching to Rome from the south; Marius fled the city.
- 87 BC: Sulla defeated Mithridates; without Sulla in Rome, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, a leader of the plebeians, attempted to reform Rome, but he was driven out of Rome.
- 86 BC: Lucius Cornelius Cinna rallied an army with the help of Marius; they came to Rome and were both recognized as consuls, but Marius died that year.
- 83 BC: Sulla returned from Asia with 40,000 troops and defeated Cinna, regained power; because the Etruscans allied with Cinna, Sulla took away Etruscan citizenship; Sulla had set a precedent: the Republic would from then on be ruled by the strongest military leader.
- 79 BC: Sulla confiscated lands and gave them to the veterans of his legions, who neglected them; Rome's rich agricultural economy began to decline and more and more of food was imported; Sulla ended his dictatorship and retired to private life.
- The First Triumvirate
- Pompey the Great, a powerful Roman general, fought the Marian party in Africa, Sicily, and Spain; cleared the Mediterranean of pirates; and was then put in charge of the war against Mithridates.
- Gaius Julius Caesar, a powerful statesman and rival of Pompey, was a leader of the plebeians; gained the people's support by avenging the names of Marius (his aunt's husband) and Cinna; he brought justice to Sulla's corrupt followers.
- Marcus Licinius Crassus, a very wealthy man, was allied with Caesar.
- 63 BC: Pompey returned from the east and asked the Senate for a triumph (a parade in honor of military victory) and land for his army, but he was denied.
- 62 BC: Caesar returned from Spain with many victories and asked for a triumph, but he was denied.
- 60 BC: Caesar (political power), Crassus (financial power), and Pompey (military power) formed the First Triumvirate, to carry out their common goals.
- 59 BC: Caesar became a consul and the proconsul of Gaul, because he wanted conquest, an army of "grisled veterans", and fame (he wrote "Commentaries on the Gaelic Wars" as an anonymous writer, to show his glory).
- 55 BC: Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls.
- 54 BC: Pompey received Spain and Africa and Crassus received Syria.
- The Rise of Caesar
- 53 BC: Crassus died, causing a conflict between Pompey and Caesar.
- 52 BC: the Senate elected Pompey as its sole consul and champion against Caesar.
- 49 BC: Caesar crossed the Rubicon river, chased down Pompey, crushed a rebellion against Rome, and said "Veni, Vidi, Vici" (I came, I saw, I conquered); Pompey fled Rome, allowing Caesar to enter Rome in triumph; Caesar went to Spain and defeated Pompey; Caesar was then announced consul.
- 48 BC: Caesar defeated Pompey; Caesar followed Pompey to Egypt, where Caesar attempted to stop a feud between Ptolemy and Cleopatra (brother and sister), and while in Egypt, Pompey was killed.
- 45 BC: Caesar was made (he made himself) dictator for life; his reforms included supporting public works, pardoned senators, gave citizenship to provinces, encouraged land redistribution and resettlement, and increased soldier pay; some of his stupid moves were not standing in the Senate's presence, wearing purple (an imperial color), and at a feast he had Mark Antony, his general, crown him (he expected the people to rejoice, but when they didn't he denied, the crown; this cycle occurred twice more).
- 44 BC, March 15 (Ides of March): conspirators distracted Caesar with patricians, while other patricians stabbed him 27 times; after putting up a good fight, Caesar said "E tu Brutei" ("and you, Brutus"), because Brutus was his good friend.
- The Second Triumvirate
- three possible candidates for power arouse: (1) Mark Antony, consul and Caesar's general; (2) Octavian, 18 year old adopted son of Caesar; and (3) the Senate, led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius.
- 43 BC: Mark Antony, Octavian, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate, to settle the power dispute; they divided the control of the Roman empire: Octavian took Italy and the West; Antony took the East; and Lepidus took Africa.
- Antony, under the charm of Cleopatra (queen of Egypt and former mistress of Caesar), planned an eastern empire with her.
- 36 BC: Lepidus was summoned to Sicily by Octavian to war against Sextus Pompeius, son of Pompey the Great; Lepidis attempted to seize Sicily for himself and was excluded from the triumvirate, leaving tension between Octavian and Antony.
- 31 BC: at the Battle of Actium, Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra, who both committed suicide.
- 27 BC: Octavian became ruler of west and east, as well as the undisputed ruler of the entire Roman Empire.
- Roman Empire (27 BC-AD 476)
- Julio-Claudian Emperors (27 BC-AD 68)
- 27 BC: Octavian became the first emperor of Rome, receiving the title Augustus (holy) and restored the Republic with himself as princeps (chief citizen); from then on all emperors had the title of Caesar Augustus.
- 27 BC-AD 14: Augustus' reign began the Pax Romana (Roman Peace), which lasted until 180; he instated "bread and circuses" (free food and free entertainment), he extended citizenship out of Rome, created fair taxes, and took a census of the entire empire; problems included no clear-cut rules for choosing a leader, inflation (more gold was leaving the empire than coming in), unemployment, and Christianity (Romans were still loyal to Roman gods).
- 14: Tiberius succeeded his stepfather Augustus and was created a military power, the Praetorian Guard, the only organized troops allowed legally in Rome.
- 37: Caligula succeeded Tiberius and was an insane and tyrannical ruler.
- 41: Claudius succeeded Caligula after he resigned, conquered Britain, and supported public works and administrative reforms.
- 54: Nero succeeded Claudius and because of his counselors, Lucius Annaeus Seneca and Sextus Afranius Burrus, he persecuted Christians and other enemies (including his mother for criticizing his mistress).
- 68: Nero was overthrown and committed suicide, ending the reign of the Julio-Claudian emperors.
- 68-69: three brief reigns were those of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius.
- The Flavians and the Antonines (AD 69-192)
- 69: Vespasian started the Flavian dynasty, restored the authority of the Senate, and promoted the welfare of the people.
- 79: Titus succeeded his father Vespasian and continued his father's policies.
- 81: Domitian succeeded his brother Titus and became a cruel and suspicious tyrant.
- 96: Marcus Cocceius succeeded Domitian, who was murdered, and began the Antonine dynasty, in which each successor was chosen for his ability and virtue and then was legally adopted by his predecessor.
- 98: Trajan succeeded Marcus Cocceius and expanded the borders of the empire to its greatest extent ever.
- 117: Hadrian succeeded Trajan, gave up some of the Roman territories in the east, consolidated the empire, stabilized its boundaries, and took on the title of Augustus, making the title Caesar only for the heir apparent; he is known for his wall in northern England.
- 138: Antoninus Pius succeeded Hadrian and continued the policies of peace.
- 161: Marcus Aurelius succeeded Antoninus Pius, became a philosopher, and defended invasions by various migrating tribes.
- 180: Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus succeeded his father Marcus Aurelius and was corrupt and bloodthirsty.
- Barracks Emperors (192-284)
- 192: Publius Helvius Pertinax succeeded Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus, who was murdered.
- 193: Didus Severus Julianus succeeded Publius Helvius Pertinax who was succeeded by Lucius Septimius Severus, a very despotic ruler.
- 211: Marcus Aurelius Antonius Caracalla succeeded Lucius Septimius Severus, he was known for his brutality, and granted Roman citizenship to all freemen living in the Roman Empire in order to impose citizen taxes.
- 217: Heliogabalus succeeded Marcus Aurelius Antonius and was corrupt.
- 222: Alexander Severus succeeded Heliogabalus and was a wise and just ruler.
- 235-268: Alexander Severus died and was succeeded by 12 emperors, during a time of confusion and unrest; nearly all the emperors came to a violent death.
- 268: Claudius II began the Illyrian dynasty, revived peace, and drove out the Goths.
- 270: Aurelian succeeded Claudius II and defeated the Goths, the Germans, and Zenobia (queen of Palmyra) who had occupied Egypt and Asia Minor.
- 275-284: Aurelian was succeeded by 6 emperors, during a time of disunity.
- Tetrarchs (284-337)
- 284: Diocletian restored the Illyrian dynasty; he greatly solved the problems in the empire with many acts: (1) he removed the privileges that Rome enjoyed at the expense of other provinces; (2) he regulated inflation by controlling prices; (3) he gave power and the title of Augustus to Maximian, as a co-ruler, incharge of Italy, Africa, Gaul, Spain, and Britain; and (4) he proclaimed the generals Galerius and Constantius both Caesars (heir apparents).
- 305: Constantius succeeded Diocletian and Maximian when they abdicated.
- 306: Constantine the Great succeeded Constantius, overcame all rivals and reunited the Western Empire under his rule.
- 312: at the battle of Milvian Bridge, Constantine dreamed that Christ appeared to him and told him to inscribe the first two letters of his name (XP in Greek) on the shields of his troops; after doing this, he defeated Maxentius, his rival.
- 313: the Edict of Milan ended the persecution of the Christians and mandated toleration of Christians in the Roman Empire; the church was then given legal rights and large financial donations.
- 324: Licinius, emperor in the East, and Constantine the Great reunited the Roman Empire; the army was reorganized and the separation of civil and military authority was completed; the Senate was given back the powers that it had lost in the 3rd century; and new gold coins were issued.
- 325: Constantine presided over the first Christian church council, the council of Nicaea.
- 326: the building of the city of Constantinople began on the site of ancient Greek Byzantium.
- 330: Constantinople was completed and was made the capital of the Roman Empire.
- 337: Constantine baptized shortly before he died.
- Decline and Fall (337-476)
- 337-353: civil wars among the rival Caesars left no emperor to rule the empire.
- 353: Constantius II, Constantine the Great's son, reunited the empire under his rule.
- 361: Julian the Apostate succeeded Constantius II and reinstated Christianity.
- 363: Jovian succeeded Julian.
- 364: Valeninian I became Western emperor and choose his brother Valens as Eastern Emperor; from then on the empire was split in two: the Western (Roman) Empire and the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire.
- 375: Valeninian II succeeded Valeninian I and became Western emperor.
- 392: Theodosius I the Great succeeded Valeninian II and united the empire.
- 395: Theodosius I died, the empire was divided between his two sons, Arcadius (?337-408), Eastern emperor, and Honorius (384-423), Western emperor.
- 410: the Visigoths conquered the city of Rome.
- 419: the Visigoths received permission from Honorius to settle in southwestern Gaul.
- 423: Valeninian III succeeded Honorius and witnessed the Vandals conquer Africa and the Huns conquer Gaul and Italy.
- 440: the Vandals, rulers of their African kingdom, and the Huns, rulers of central and northern Europe, invaded the Western and Eastern Empires.
- 451: the Huns marched on Gaul and were defeated at Chalons by the Christian and Romanized Visigoths.
- 453: the Huns invaded Lombardy.
- 455: Valeninian III was murdered ending the Theodosius dynasty in the west.
- 455-475: nine Western emperors ruled, with little power.
- 475: Romulus Augustulus became the Western emperor.
- 476: Romulus Augustulus was overthrown by the mercenary Herulian leader Odoacer, this ended the Western Roman Empire.
