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Paul Gosselin
In a published article there is some time in the review the Man (no.97-98 pp.81-90)
bearing on the anthropology of the disease, Marc Augé approached a series of
questions which touch the researchers interested by this " field ".
Among these questions, Augé emphasizes that the comprehension of the systems of
nonWestern care often implies difficulties of interpretation and that a more or
less conscious ethnocentrism slips there readily. The imposition of typologies
inside this field, the attempt to introduce a simplifying dualism there
establishing " a virtually empirico-rational sector and a sector
irréductiblement magic " constitute striking examples of this phenomenon
(Augé 1986:82-83). With the number of the various shutters of the question,
Augé notes (1986:83-84).
" One still can, in a prospect combining intellectualism and a certain relativism, to estimate that the passage to the magic or the religion corresponds to a widening of the causal context, as in modern science the theory provides a causal context broader than that of the common direction (Horton 1967). One can finally doubt that the cut nature/surnature is an explicit data of the systems nosologic studied by the anthropologist and to estimate that this one projects it on a reality which it translates badly and of which it is unaware of the unitary character."
During the article which follows we will incline ourselves more particularly
towards this last shutter approached by Augé, that is to say projection by the
Westerners of the natural opposition - supernatural on the systems
idéologico-monk of the not-Western companies. Initially we will establish what
implies with the Juste the natural opposition - supernatural, then we will
examine a metaphysical system not-Westerner in order to establish which can be
the principles which " manage " the world in a cosmology where our
natural opposition - supernatural does not exist. Further in the article we
will record some Western data which will clarify ambiguities of the natural
opposition - supernatural even on our premises.
I Natural opposition - supernatural and subjacent concepts
Let us note upon the departure the fact of opposing the " naturalness " to " supernatural " implies adhesion with a metaphysical design allotting to reality two levels. One, " natural ", whose behavior is governed by laws specific and impersonelles provides the object of study of scientific search. The other, " supernatural ", (with-' the dessus' of the naturalness) whose behavior is not governed by strict and inflexible laws and whose causes are personal entities or forces inaccessible to science. This fact was raised besides a certain time ago by Durkheim. It notes with reason (1960:36):
**time-out** " So that one can say some certain fact that they be supernatural, it be necessary have already the feeling that there be a command natural of thing, i.e. que the phenomenon of universe be dependent between them according to some report necessary, call law. Once this acquired principle, all that derogates from these laws was to necessarily seem apart from nature and, consequently, of the reason: because what is natural in this direction is also rational, these relations necessary doing nothing but express the way in which the things are connected logically. But this notion of the universal determinism is of recent origin; even the largest thinkers of traditional antiquity had not succeeded in taking conscience fully of it."
Durkheim adds (1960:38)
" Thus, so that we have the idea of the supernatural one, it is not enough that we are pilot unexpected events; it is still necessary that those are conceived like impossible, i.e. like irreconcilable with a command which, wrongly or rightly, necessarily appears to us implied in the nature of the things. However, this concept of a command necessary, in fact positive sciences built it little by little, and, consequently, the contrary concept could not be former for them."
We accept, with Durkheim, readily the recent origin of the opposition [ 1 ] naturelle\surnaturelle in Occident. On the other hand, with regard to the causes of this conceptual opposition, we are rather of the opinion that it is necessary to consider at the origin of this opposition a widened causal context, including not only " positive sciences " like Durkheim says it but also the ideological and cultural environment in which these were born (see Gosselin 1986:161-181 or Jaki 1974). Like such, natural opposition - subjacent surnature and its concepts metaphysics constitute probably a significant element of ideological Western modern. This ideological, like says it well Augé (1975:xx), which "... does not constitute the sum of the speeches that the company best informed could hold, initiated these members best "... but rather " the not-formulated system " of beliefs (unconscious - implicit) to which all refer.
II Cosmology montagnaise - naskapi.
Montagnais - Naskapi live the North-East of the peninsula of
Quebec-Labrador. By its traditions it is about people of hunters-gatherers
whose principal game are the caribou, the beaver, the bear and, by places, the
moose. Montagnais-Naskapi speak about the languages belonging to the linguistic
group algonquin. As Frank Speck (1977:10-11) notes it they generally lived as
small groups isolated from one or two families driving out together on well
delimited territories of hunting, only large gatherings taking place on the
coast during the short summer. On the level of their political organization
Montagnais - Naskapi never had great centralized political institutions nor
chamanic associations or companies of masks.
One can obviously express a not-Western cosmology in various ways but here we will be satisfied with a presentation [ 2 ] allowing contrast with the more or less equivalent Western concepts which interest us. We will thus not seek to reproduce here a speech which could hold a Montagnais Shaman - Naskapi but rather to establish a species of minimal cartography of the " world-view " Montagnais - Naskapi, ideological shortened to some extent.
A.1. Tce ' mantu [ 3 ] or Great mind is that which created the world and it controls it. It does not have a body and it is immortal. One does not have to request it or to try to influence it because it is good and does not make evil with the men (Speck 1977:28-29) [ 4 ]
A.2. After death one will meet Tce ' mantu (Speck 1977:74), from where death is not the end of all.
B.1. The ground always existed apparently in its form present (Speck 1977:10). It has the shape of a hillock and it floats on water (Speck 1977:52).
B.2. The four winds are, after Tce ' mantu, the most powerful beings of the ground (Speck 1977:59).
B.3. **time-out** the command of world present, i.e. the principal characteristic of physical environment physique and biological (life animal especially), be appear following transformation of man and of animal must with work of Shaman of time primitive (Speck 1977:10, 49) of which Tseka' nozzle be the more significant (Speck 1977: 10, 47-48).
B.4. **time-out** all the place significant of environment Naskapi have some " Master ", that it be necessary honour when one enter in interaction with them, or if one have need, of a thing concerned with their authority (source, lake, river, wind, mountain, etc).
B.5. The stars, they are deaths and the aurora borealis, in fact deaths dance (Speck 1977:61).
B.6. All the things have a aataacaakw (a spirit); animals, clothing, rocks, tents and even gates of tent (To tan 1979:114).
B.7 the breath of the powerful beings (as Tseka' nozzle) can make revive deaths, even starting from some remainders (Savard 1985: 196, 214) or to make push trees (Savard 1985: 91).
C.1. Another significant group is called Mista' peo. They are immortal and all the men have one of them [ 5 ] (Speck 1977:34-35). They do not live another world but ours, in an area a little in the east, on the other side of the sea (Vincent 1973:79-80). They have a head who is called Ucima.w Mista.pe.w and some are good, the other malicious ones.
C.2. The mista' peo of a person can communicate information about its future to him, how and where to drive out and this, by means of dreams or of divination (Speck 1977:35-36).
C.3. One can cultivate his relation with his mista' peo (while meditating on its dreams), which will return it a more interesting source of information and " magic " forces (Speck 1977: 35).
C.4. The mista' peo of a person seems to be the reincarnation of an ancestor (Speck 1977:39).
C.5. The mista' peo of a person takes care on the control of its " owner ", rewarding generosity and honnêté, punishing the lie and avarice (Speck 1977:36). On the other hand, it happens sometimes that the mista' peo can order a normally prohibited action [ 6 ]
D.1. The human ones are beings lower in power and intelligence (wisdom) than the mista' peo and higher than the animals (except some exceptions which we will see further).
D.2. Hunting is an activity whose results depend as much on knowledge and the technical skill on the hunter that on its knowledge and its skill in magic. These two aspects are inseparable and also essential.
D.3. While the mista' peo can come into contact with its " owner " by means of dreams, the men can come into contact in their turn with their mista' peo by means of various techniques of which the projection of the heart, mental concentration and the declaration of wishes (Speck 1977:40).
D.4. By means of the divination (scapulimancie) the men can come into contact with the spirits of the animals in order to obtain various information on hunting, time that it will make, the diseases which can appear and other questions of personal interest [ 7 ]
E.1. the major animals (caribou, beaver, bear) can communicate with the " hearts " of the dead and alive animals of their species (Speck 1977:72, 74).
E.2. All significant animals (caribou, beaver and fish) of the Montagnais universe - Naskapi (except the bear: to see Speck 1977:95)" heads have " who direct them. Without the agreement of one of the heads of the animals, one will not be able to cut down a concerning animal his authority.
**time-out** E.3. The hunting, like activity of subsistence long-term, imply the training of a whole of behavior show the respect towards the " heart " of animal [ 8 ] of which some sacrifice of portion of flesh, some processing specific to give with bones or with remainder some animal cut down.
E.4. Certain animals, like the beaver, can change form at will and have extraordinary capacities [ 9 ]
As we indicated already above, the opposition of the concepts of "
naturalness " and " supernatural " misses completely Montagnaise
epistemology - Naskapi. This cosmology rather postulates the existence of a
world where various beings having resources physical, " magic " and
intellectual different exist together. It is important to note about the
designs metaphysics [
10 ] which precede that they are only explicit statements in mythology
Montagnaise - Naskapi. We now will pay our attention on other designs which
appear subjacent to us with those described above.
According to the data provided by Montagnaise mythology - Naskapi, one of the significant principles of their ideological is that of the transmutation. **time-out** the transmutation imply the permeability of border of species, i.e. que some being equip of certain capacity can, if they it wish, himself express under the form to a being of a species different. Dependent on the primitive times described by the mythical accounts, the principle of the transmutation is used as explanatory principle, introducing an always current causal context into the everyday life of Montagnais - Naskapi before the contact with the white. Speck notes on this subject (1977:49):
" A survey of the available Montagnais - Naskapi bruise betrays little indication that they serf any religious end beyond providing explanations of existing phenomena in the natural world. The explanatory justifies averages fairly high in the stories. Existing conditions, the forms and behaviors of animals and the geography of the country, are largely the result of transformation. Consequently, transformation becomes year abstract principle in the system of thought of the nomads. We see how mammals, fish, birds and natural landmarks are produced in their present own way by metamorphosis under the power of has conjururor, has shaman of has mythical period."
Like such, the transmutation is associated to the Shamans much, but certain animals, like the beaver (Speck 1977:113), have also the capacity to change. Montagnaise mythology - Naskapi provided to us many examples of transmutations but it remains that those have an orientation, a particular " pattern ". The transmutation apparently has a limit. A being equipped with certain capacities can appear very well in the form a being of lower capacities, but the reverse seems impossible. One can represent this orientation of the process of the transmutation in the following way:
**time-out** note that in the diagram illustrate (above) the process of transmutation Montagnais-Naskapi, all the being imply make part of large class of being animate, even certain rock and certain tree. It may be that we are here in the presence of a case showing the influence of the religion on the linguistic categories? Or... the reverse? Still a question of the priority of hen or egg??
The arrow which reconsiders the group " animals " returns to the case of the beaver which, according to Speck (1977:113), has the capacity to transform itself into goose and other animal forms. Sometimes also, the transmutation can be the result of the intervention a being higher in capacities near another than the lower capacities. It is the case of Tseka' nozzle, the large Shaman of the old times who transformed other beings into weasels, bat and white whales (Speck 1977:48). As regards the transmutation indicated by the arrow: animals --> trees, that is established by the account of Meshapush and the origin of the fire (McNulty 1980 D22) where Meshapush, the legendary hare, changed into larch (wa.tna.n). It is not the only case of transmutation leading to our category of inanimate objects. (At Montagnais - Naskapi the larch belongs to the category animated) Some passes from the human group and leads (without intermediary) to this last group. In the account Tseka' nozzle catches the Sun (Speck 1977:53-55),
Tseka' nozzle the Shaman sees himself transformed, in spite of him, out of sun. In another account it is seen transformed into the moon (Speck 1977:56)
We are in presence here of a contrast enough striking between the principle of transmutation postulated by Montagnaise cosmology - Naskapi which implies the permeability of the border of the animal species and the principle of the fixity of the species postulated by the modern biology which implies that the alive beings reproduce only according to their species. For a great part, Western biological taxonomy outside puts back on the fact that the species are genetic isolates, i.e. inside its borders, interfertiles, and, mutually infecund, therefore not of passage between species [ 11 ] On the other hand if one takes account of the transformism implied by the theory of the evolution, which tends to nowadays explain a mainly inobservable process [ 12 ] (the origin and the diversity of the life), paradoxically contrast between conceptual frameworks montagnais - naskapi and Westerner disappear. It remains obviously that the mechanisms in question are not of the same command: mechanics - materialists in the first case, magic, in the other (does each one of these processes of it is held in a different " world ", under a different epistemology). In addition the direction of the transformism Montagnais - Naskapi is the reverse of that postulated by the theory of the evolution. Speck notices on this item (1977:49):
" significant Another fact is that the trend of Montagais - Naskapi evolutionary theory is from man to animals. We cuts has declaration one this not from the old Mistassini ex-shaman, Ka' kwa: " The animals were ounce like the Indians and could talk have we C. Then some of them were overcome by others in some animal disguise and forced to remain drank have such. Animal Others assumed shapes so much that involuntarily they became transformed permanently."
According to the data available in the initial phase leading to this search it seemed to to me that the transformism montagnais-naskapi always implies a certain forfeiture, acceptance, to some extent, of a lower state or capacities. Let us stress that when we speak here about " higher " states or " inferiors " who they are distinctions well belonging to ideological Western. Probably it would not have any interest to determine, starting from the montagnais-naskapi point of view of if Atchen is " higher " than Carcajou or if the men, as a species, rank " above " the animals (see the appendix A).
In addition the only exception to this ' règle' of the transformism montagnais-naskapi which came to me to my attention is the case of Kukukueshis the bird (reported by Savard 1979: 34) which is transformed into giant cannibal Atchen, a being apparently higher in capacities and force than a bird. It is indeed about a contradiction to our assumption but with its defense we can note that the account of Kukukueshis itself to us provided indications allowing to discredit it. Initially, the transformation is of short duration. Kukukueshis appears in the form of Atchen only during one short lapse of time. In much of other cases of transformism (men with animals for example) the new form becomes permanent. In addition, the transformation of Kukukueshis into Atchen seems weak; it quickly is located and uncovered. It would not have succeeded, all things considered, that a poor imitation.
In a general way the majority of the transformations (of species in species) which us quote the atnogan montagnais-naskapi are irreversible. Here are some examples:
* the man who became a beaver (Savard 1979: 24)
* the boy full with lice becomes a finch (Savard 1979: 43)
* the man who becomes a caribou (more precisely the Master of the caribou) (Speck 1977: 81)
* Tseka' nozzle which is seen transforming into the moon by his/her son (Savard 1985: 243).
Only one case is given to us where one could suppose that the transformation would have been temporary, it acts of the case of Tseka' nozzle which is transformed into goose and steals (Savard 1971: 41). One can suppose indeed that the transformation was temporary because it is not any more question more late in the account of Tseka' nozzle which flies.
Specifically, the transformism montagnais-naskapi postulates a world where there are distinctions between the species, it living and it not-alive, but, given certain circumstances where the presence of certain beings to the particular capacities appears, these distinctions are not completely any more sure, more completely hermetic. Appearances can mislead. This principle of the transmutation implies indeed a potential continuity between all the beings, even between the organics and the inorganic one [ 13 ] At Ojibwa AD INTERIM Hallowell notices (1981:35)
" distinct The world of myth is not categorically from the world have experienced by human beings in everyday life. In the to lath, have well have in the to form, No sharp lines edge Be drawn dividing living room beings of the animate class have metamorphosis is possible. In outward demonstration neither animal NOR human characteristics define categorical differences in the core of being. And, even aside from metamorphosis, we find that in everyday life interaction with nonhuman entities of the animate class are only understandable one the assumption that they possess some of the attributes of " let us persons "." (underlined myself)
If Western science is considered, this link between the beings is also recognized, but it is the molecular biology and the genetics which provide us the bases of them. Tiny room to its simpler expression this implies, in physicochemical terms, the recognition which we are done everything of same " building materials ", same 103 basic atoms. Only the combinations and architecture varies.
Another implicit principle in our minimal cartography of cosmology montagnaise - naskapi is that which presupposes the understandable communication between beings of different species At Montagnais - Naskapi as at much of other groups of amérindiens one supposes, given certain capacities or certain technical, that one can communicate in an understandable way with not-human beings. In this group of not-human beings we find the " hearts " of the major animals (caribou, bear, beaver), the mista' peo, the quatres winds, the ancient Shaman Tseka' nozzle, Wiskedjanape' O, the Masters of the animals and other individuals and groups of individuals of the cosmological universe montagnais - naskapi. Techniques (or channels) of communication used by Montagnais - Naskapi with the beings of this group are the dreams, the divination (by means of burned bones, drums, etc), the ceremony of the trembling tent, or the " gazing " (or concentration using usual objects) described by Speck (1977:164-165). The communication, at Montagnais - Naskapi, with the world of the not-human beings gives access to information of the personal type, relating to their everyday life directly. With dimensions Westerner, on the other hand, the " communication " (or if one speaks about science, rather observation) with the world of the not-human beings (i.e. if one him substitute the natural world) does not give access which has of the information of the impersonal type which concerns directly only to be it (the animal) or the thing in question. The attitudes of the Western scientists opposite the world of the not-human beings such as they are conceived by Montagnais - Naskapi seem to take two directions. **time-out** or bien one deny quite simply their existence or bien one admit the possibility of their existence but in stress that it be not some spring of science to confirm or to cancel the existence of such being, since the science have not some influence on them. **time-out** as of its birth, the science Western have set up in axiom the principle metaphysical that for all effect material it there have a cause material in the same way command and this one must be directly observable, what eliminate, in this framework conceptual, the catch in consideration of intervention, like agent causals, of being not-human like that postulate by the cosmology montagnaise - naskapi.
A last principle, noted initially by AD INTERIM Hallowell at Ojibwa, which probably applies at Montagnais - Naskapi also, is that of personalization. According to this principle, an impersonal causality, like that presupposed by Western science, cannot be accepted. In the personalized causal context, the material effects (scarcity or abundance of game, storms, diseases, accidents, etc.) all are held to be consequences of direct interventions either of not-human beings, or of human beings to the capacities out of the ordinary one. Hallowell notices on this question (1981:44-45):
" With respect to the Ojibwa design of causality, all my observations suggest that has culturally constituted psychological set operates which inevitably direct the reasoning of individuals towards year explanation of vents in personalistic terms. Who did it, who is responsible, is always the crucial question to Be answered. Personalistic explanation of past vents is found in the myths. (...) central Personalistic explanation is in theories of disease causation (...) The personalistic theory of causation even emerge today among accultured Ojibwa. In 1940, when has severe forest fire broke out At the mouth of the Berens To rivet, No Indian would believe that lightning gold any impersonal gold accidental determinants were involved. Somebody must cuts been responsible. The German spy theory soon became popular. " Obviousness ", began to accumulate; strangers had been seen in the bush, and so one. Standard The personalistic of explanation satisfies the Ojibwa because it is rooted in A BASIC metaphysical assumption; its terms unable are ultimate and of further analysis within the framework of to their cognitive orientation and experiment."
Probably, this law of causality applies to a good number of people not-Westerners. Let us note, by finishing this section, that there is not, according to the data of which I have at present at Montagnais-Naskapi of field knowing which would be distinguished from the others by the fact of basing itself or not on empirical observations and which would be comparable with those that one finds on our premises. E.g. the natural science vs. arts, philosophy, etc. At Montagnais-Naskapi the " naturalness " and " supernatural " [ the 14] are found and are côtoient everywhere " naturally " and without metaphysical apartheid. Let us underline in addition that the fact of noting the inexistence of a natural dichotomy - supernatural or empirical - magic at Montagnais-Naskapi absence of laws does not imply controlling the world and the beings which are there but rather than these laws which exist concerning hunting, the communication with the Masters of the animals, etc do not aim nor do not melt such distinctions.
III Western context: ambiguities.
Perhaps in Occident one would tend to expect that the opposition naturalness - supernatural is very old. Actually it is not completely the case. Benson Saler (1977:38-49) in a particularly interesting article (Supernatural have has Western Category , highlights the fact well that this opposition appears neither at the old Greeks or Jews, nor in the writings of the primitive Christian church (New Will and written Fathers of the Church). According to Salting, the natural development of the opposition - supernatural place at the time of the meeting had, with the Middle Ages, of Christian theology and certain elements of ancient Greek philosophy. It notes (To salt 1977:44):
" The eventual development of has clear concept of the surpernatural in Christian theology was promoted both by the dialogues with the heretics and by the influence of Neoplatonic philosophy."
(1977:47) " Holy Thomas Aquinas (D. 1274) employed supernatural in its Neoplatonic acceptance of superior being gold substance (of Lubac 1934:229, Kenny 1967:812, 1972:95). He also, however, applied supernatural to surpassing effects (Kennny 1967:812), and it was out of this that use has technical theology of the supernatural emerged."
Even after its initial development in the thought of Thomas d' Aquin, the opposition naturalness - supernatural had right only to one rather sporadic use. R. Hooykaas for example the little of interest of the theologist protesting notes Calvin for this opposition (1970:332):
" It does not make essential distinction between the ordinary facts, forming part about nature (for example to raise it and lay down it sun), and the exceptional occurrences (an exceptional dryness) or miraculous. It does not make use of the " supernatural " term; there are for him only regular demonstrations, less regular, or same isolated from the divine will. It recognizes that God instituted a certain command of nature and invested the things of some to be able but it the idea refuses that only the " special " events require the intervention of the Creator. Divine providence appears until in the unimportant facts; the sparrow on the roof, the lily of the fields is under its personal guard and even each hair of the head is counted (...)."
At the first geologists also (and this is true for the scientists of the 18 E and 19 E centuries) Hooykaas notes that a great number admitted the idea that the natural laws and the miracles constituted both of the manifestations of the divine power. They is the cases, at least, at Bacon, Newton, Beekman, Cotes, Kingsley, Miller and Palissy (Hooykaas 1970:330-332, 339-340). Therefore even among these scientists who conceived already nature in terms of matter governed by laws, this " nature ", such as they included/understood it, could not easily form part of our opposition naturalness - supernatural because it remains there a substrate of " supernatural " in the fact that the natural laws themselves are conceived like divine edicts. This old fundamental cosmological unit, like let us know we it all, is not more. It burst during the great handing-over in question of the Judeo-Christianity which appeared to the 18 E and 19 E centuries. We find ourselves today with the results of this bursting; an economic life, a philosophical life, a scientific life, a political life, an artistic life, etc. Sectors burst and which function each one with ethical bases and epistemological which is clean for them. Hooykaas notices on this subject (1970:346-347):
" the biblical vision of the world is " naive "; God of nature and God of the history are only one God; the command and the miracle are also divine. Since second half of the XVII E century this unit undergoes an increasingly clear rupture. The word " truth " took a significance almost exclusively mathématico-physics; the natural science was converted into " scientism ", an almost religious confidence in the capacity of science to restore the line reason and the adequate action. Poetry, ceasing automatically expressing its particular vision of the world, was reduced, in the general opinion, with a simple fiction, pleasant but primarily imaginary. In the same way, the religious life was desiccated until not being more that rational approval with the existence of a great cause first, of a large Mechanic or Mathematician, approval often accompanied at the orthodoxe ones by acceptance not less rational by a special revelation."
Iv Conclusion
Since the bursting of cosmology Judeo-Christian, the opposition naturalness -
supernatural took an importance in Occident which it did not have before and is
useful, to a great extent, to distinguish the " monk " from the
" remainder "... life. Thus, although it appears that the opposition
naturalness - supernatural is rather old, it cannot be attached to the large
cultural currents which influenced the Western thought, that is to say those of
the Greeks or the Judeo-Christianity and did not enjoy, even on our premises,
of a universal or uniform use. Curiously, it appears that it is the birth of
social sciences which devoted its use the most, and this, in order to establish
a contrast striking between savoirs based on the empirical observation and
savoirs rather metaphysics and speculative. Birth accompanied by an attitude
aiming to not only extending, as long as possible, the use of the scientific
method being studied of the mankind under all its demonstrations but also the
evaluation and categorization of savoirs others compared to the scientific
knowledge Bidney, discussing the absence of the opposition naturalness -
supernatural at the not-Westerners and of his use in social sciences, note
(1968:165-166):
" This, however, does not mean that they (native - P.g.) distinguish clearly between the sphere of the natural and that of the supernatural, since gods and spirits are just have much share of " natural " ace are men and animals. The dichotomy of the natural and the supernatural implies has scientific epistemology and critical, metaphysical sophistication which must not Be assumed without applicable obviousness (...) Strictly speaking, native, like other peoples At has prescientific training course of thought, C not glance themselves have believing in myths, since the distinction between scientific logic and myth, which the scientific ethnologist has constructed in his analysis of native cultures, is unknown to the native themselves."
As Saler (1977:33) indicates it, there are two major difficulties which arise as for the use of the supernatural term: does it have to be useful to us in our descriptions of systems idéologico- religious not-Westerners? Does it have to be for it question in the context of a general standard of the religion? As regards the first point, with Saler (1977:32) it appears obvious to to me that one cannot, within the framework of an analysis of nonWestern data, to avoid using the categories of our culture. The effort to include/understand data of a different culture inevitably implies a first stage where one locates this different culture in familiar terms (i.e. Western) in order to allow his comprehension. That corresponds to a phenomenon common to almost any process of training: to use the known one to include/understand the unknown. The analogy, at a certain time, becomes inevitable [ 15 ] To short-circuit the ethnocentrism it is probably enough to be conscious of these transfers to direction and, later on, to try to account for the cultural data of the not-Western company according to its own terms, i.e. to specify the originality of the other culture well. **time-out** with regard to the second problem concerning the use of term supernatural, be its introduction in the context of a standard general of religion, a number grow of researcher as well as the author of this article think that it be necessary be him grant a role negligible in this question or bien they call directly into question its use in the description of data not-Western be give its character ethnocentrique.
With my direction thus, our anthropological concepts of economic, policy, relationship and religion can be used only to set up a temporary scaffolding which must be dismantled as soon as the structure interns not-Western cultural data becomes accessible. Let us can avoid setting up in monuments our intellectual crutches. While finishing I would like to express the wish that the readers of this review interested by the culture montagnaise - naskapi can bring fuller data concerning the diagram of the transformism implied by the accounts montagnais - naskapi given on page 10. Data which will make it possible to cancel or to confirm this assumption.
In apparent contradiction with the assertion makes higher with the effect than
one cannot consider that Montagnais-Naskapi classify the beings according to a
hierarchy ("higher " than " lower") of the Western kind we must
note all the same, that has through mythology montagnaise - naskapi certain
indices letting show through a classification of the beings. Among the "
atnogans " (or accounts crowned) of Montagnais-Naskapi those relating to
Tseka' nozzle (or Tsakapesh according to the epellation of R. Savard) put, more
than others, in obviousness of the indices of a system of categorization of the
beings. In these accounts one notes by various places Tseka' nozzle which calls
other beings " little brother " or, conversely, Tseka' nozzle
which is made call " big brother ". Here the list of these
beings and references relevant:
Water bird (Savard 1971:28)
Beaver (Savard 1971:74)
Peak-wood (Savard 1971:76)
Eagle-fisherman (Savard 1971:78)
Caribou (Savard 1971:81)
Mouffette (Savard 1971:82)
Bear (in the account of Mesh) (Savard 1979:27)
Thunder and Flash (Savard 1971:64) and (Savard 1979:31)
Those which Tseka' nozzle call " small son ":
Young goose and the ant (Savard 1971:26)
In addition those which Tseka' nozzle call " brothers ":
Thunder and Flash (Savard 1971:67)
Not-to be identified (Savard 1971:104)
The only being to which Tseka' nozzle addresses the word (in fact, which is
seen forced to speak) and which is not made call nor " brother
", " young brother " or " small son " it is Pierre
(Savard 1971:65-70). It would thus seem that Pierre cannot be classified among the
brothers of Tseka' nozzle. On what that does depend it?
With regard to the fact of speaking with, or of forcing with the word, of the things which generally do not speak that seems indeed the mark or the demonstration of higher capacities. Another example is given to us by Savard (1985:291) where Tseka' nozzle speaks with its arrow in order to direct it well. In each one of these examples the capacity of Tseka' nozzle is shown non-seulement in what the stone and the arrow answer him, but they include/understand to him and obey, although sometimes these demonstrations of being able seem to have unexpected results, even of Tseka' nozzle itself (Savard 1971:65-67).
Tseka' nozzle watch shows its capacity of good in other manners. Initially by the capacity of its breath it can transform or makes grow (or live) abnormally the things: the hair of his/her parents (Savard 1985: 122-123), a white spruce (Savard 1971:10-11), or a lump of earth (Savard 1979: 32). By its wishes and its songs Tseka' nozzle and others shamans (Vincent 1973: 80) show also their power. It is enough for them to wish something so that it is carried out. Tseka' nozzle does not have which has to wish that the " super-bear " pushes to him in a direction with its muzzle and it is what occurs (Savard 1979: 5). Tseka' nozzle (swallowed by a fish, just like Jonas) wishes that the fish gobe a hook so that it left (Savard 1985 there: 183-184), Renard wish that the Large Duke comes to his help (Savard 1979: 16), the owner of Mestokosho wish to have food (Savard 1979: 54) and it is what occurs. It is necessary to say nevertheless that all do not have same success, like Kukukueshis which, by jealousy, tries (by means of wishes) to kill a man (Savard 1979: 36) but it succeeded not
According to these some data we can, probably, draw at least a conclusion. If there is a system of categorization of the beings at Montagnais-Naskapi establishing an unspecified hierarchy the distinctions which it implies do not seem to slice so much on the level of the species but aim the individual rather. In concrete terms if it appears that the members of the bird group are generally lower in being able and in intelligence with the man that does not mean that certain individuals of this group, like Kukukueshis, can equalize it. Taking account of the capacities and talents that the individual it holds will be able to define itself its place in the hierarchy montagnaise-naskapi of the beings. Its membership of a particular species has only one relative importance. If this assumption proves supported, one could not then claim, within the conceptual framework montagnais-naskapi, that the men, as a species, rank above the animals. All owes, in this context, being taken individually, because all the men do not have the same capacities and the same thing would be true in the animals from where possibilities of overlappings in the hierarchy between different beings of species. I leave well with the care specialists in the cultural surface montagnaise-naskapi the task to solve the question.
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Summary Paul Gosselin: Cultural epistemologies and projection
categories of thought.
This article considers the natural opposition - supernatural and its use in anthropology in interpretation of data not-Westerners. Initially one examines what to the Juste this natural dichotomy is - supernatural that we use. Then a metaphysical system not-Western will be treated, that of Montagnais-Naskapi, in order to establish which can be the principles which " manage " the world in a cosmology where our natural opposition - supernatural does not exist While finishing we will record some Western data which will clarify ambiguities of this opposition even on our premises.
Abstact Paul Gosselin: Farming Epistemologies and the
Projection of Categories of Thought.
In this direct article we will our attention to the natural - supernatural opposition and it' S uses in anthropology in the interpretation of not-Western dated. First of all we will analyzes the natural - supernatural dichotomy itself. Further one we shall examines has not-Western metaphysical system, that of the Montagnais-Naskapi, in order to establish the principles " managing " the world in A cosmology where our natural - supernatural opposition does not exist. Ending the article we will discuss Western dated that saw-tooth some light one ambiguities inherent in this opposition even in the West.
* Published in the Ethnological Books pp.
45-62 N S. vol. 17 No 10 1989
[ 1 ] - According
to Salting (1977:36-38), it is necessary to doubt the assertion of Durkheim of
the recent origin of the design of commands naturalness and supernatural.
**time-out** the data provide by Salt be convincing and highlight well en
évidence the seniority of these design but the assertion of Durkheim remain
recoverable on a level because the data provide by Salt question not en doute
the fact that the opposition in way systematic and coherent of command
naturalness and supernatural constitute indeed a development recent which have
accompany (or precede of little) the birth of science Western.
[ 2 ] - Which is inspired, in good part, of that of Bunge (1976: 195-198) applied to science.
[ 3 ] - the epellation of this Naskapi term and that of the others which follow is of Speck (1977).
[ 4 ] - This design is not accepted universally like an authentic belief montagnaise-naskapi. Speck itself thinks that it must with the influences missionnaires (Speck 1977: 28), but in spite of that it presents itself of the data supporting the assumption of its roots autochtones (two old recensions of this belief going back to 1626 and 1808) and notes its general information among the population montagnaise-naskapi.
[ 5 ] - It seems y here to have a certain ambiguity between the concepts of aataacaakw and mista' peo. Speck affirms that all have one of them (1977:35), while Tanner note rather than all has a aataacaakw (1979:114) and than the fact of having a mista' peo is not automatic and than it is sometimes necessary to seek one of them or to inherit it (Vincent 1973:80). Cooper, for its part, affirms the belief at Montagnais-Naskapi in the existence of two entities distinct from the body, equivalent roughly the heart and the spirit (1935: 359).
[ 6 ] - What contradicts to some extent the assertion of the preceding sentence but Speck is quite explicit on top (1977:43):
" The rational moralist may see how there may easily arise circumstances under which the elect of the Great Man (mista' peo - P.g.) might induce the individual to perform acts quite the contrary of righteous. We C indeed encounter this very situation. For No matter how arbitrary, but even eccentric, the imaginary commands of the inner element might Be, they would cuts to Be performed by the man who is " good " in the native sense. The law of conscience, have some would call it, could lead to insult to others considered have reprisals for some imaginary offences."
[ 7 ] - Speck specifies on this item (1977:141):
" Divination is the sequel in action to dream revelations and promptings coming from the soul gold Great Man of the individual. Dreaming, wishing, intention and exercise of will form the theory of religion; the consultation of animal oracles forms the practice."
[ 8 ] - Speck explains in the following way what implies these acts of homage towards the animals (1977:73):
" Requirements of conduct towards animals exist, however, which cuts to Be known and carried out by the hunter. His success, depends upon this knowledge, and they wire-drawer, since No one edge know everything and act to perfection, the subject of the magico-relgious science becomes, even from the native point of view, inexhaustible year one. Therefore, failure in the chase, the disappearance of the game from the hunter' S districts, with ensuing famine, starvation, weakness, sickness, and death, are all attributed to the hunter' S ignorance of some hidden principles of behavior towards the animals, but his willful disregard of them. The to form is ignorance. The to lath is sin."
[ 9 ] - Speck notices on this item (1977:113):
" The beaver, it is believed, embodies extraordinarily high negro spiritual endowments. It animal edge transform itself into other forms, that of geese and other birds being specifically mentioned. The beaver edge disappear by penetrating the ground, by arising aloft into the air, gold by diving into the depths of has lake gold stream and remaining any length of time desired. In shorts, " He edge escape gold hide himself yew He so wishes to, so that He edge never Be taken "."
[ 10 ] - Here we will be satisfied with the definition of current metaphysics in epistemology of science, it be-with saying will be held for metaphysics very stated which could not be refuted by means of empirical observations.
[ 11 ] - Concerning the notion of the fixity of the species in Occident C.u.m. Smith notes (1976: 236-237):
" Certainly in the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries the idea that species were fixed and immutable was widely accepted. Indeed, without the vast duration of time which we nowadays accept this is goal the commonsense of everyman. Organisms, in general, standard C breed true to. We should Be most sceptical of the nuseryman who sold custom seeds purporting to Be one seedling when in spring has totally different seedling germinated! And, probably, without this belief in the fixity of species it would cut been difficult for systematists, and one immediately thinks of Linnaeus, to bring order into the great congeries of organic forms brought to light by the European diaspora."
[ 12 ] - True for the macro-evolution and the abiogénèse. As regards the origins first of the life, one agrees, in a general way, to admit that it implies inobservable processes nowadays. The scientist George Wald indicates (1954:46):
" What the controversy reviewed above (concerning the research of Redi, Spallanzani and Pasteur and the fall of the spontaneous hypothesis generation - P.g.) showed to Be untenable is only the belief that living room organisms arise spontaneously under present conditions. We cuts now to face has somewhat different problem: how organisms may cuts arisen spontaneously under different conditions in some of forming period, granted that they C so No to skirt."
[ 13 ] - For example, in a Montagnais account - Naskapi noted by Speck (1977:53-55), Tseka' nozzle, the large Shaman, is transformed into sun. At Ojibwa, Hallowell notes (1981:24-26) that one classifies certain stones in the category: animated objects.
[ 14 ] - It is here obviously of our concepts and what we would call " naturalness " or " supernatural ".
[ 15 ] - These last years in philosophy of science, one becomes increasingly conscious of the significant role played by the analogy (to include/understand the unknown by means of comparison with the known one) in the development of the theories in natural science For example Mary Hesse notes (1972:194):
"..., there are analogies which are implied in the whole way in which phenomena are observed and the language in which theories are expressed. The particle theory has provided such an analogy ever since Democritus developed his philosophy of atomism. These analogies are sometimes generalized into interpretations of the whole universe, and there is often influence in the other direction too, for contemporary categories of thought and social conditions may take a hand in moulding the scientific analogies. For instance, Wiener suggests that there have been three stages in the scientific description of human beings according to what was the most typical machine in use during the period - first, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, clockwork mechanisms described by analogies from dynamics; then in the nineteenth century, heat engines described by analogies from thermodynamics; and now communication devices described by analogies from electronics. Analogies like these determine the phenomena to be taken into account, and therefore the direction of research, and the whole framework of a theory. they have enormous vested interests in a theory, therefore they can never easily be abandoned when new facts do not appear to fit in with the system of explanation which the analogies presuppose. There is always the temptation to explain awkward facts away in order to save the basic analogies of a science more than once, most notably with the analogy of mechanism. Perhaps it is still happening in other and more subtle ways."
Translated by Aaron Bennett from the original French site:
http://www.samizdat.qc.ca/cosmos/sc_soc/surnat.html
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