One of the most influential theories of conflict in western history is contained in the story of evolution. Origin of Species of Charles Darwin made an immediate impact on English culture upon its publication in the 1850s. However, without the support of an inspiring young scientist, Thomas Henry Huxley, the revolution of evolution would not have been so quickly popularized. Huxley’s all-out effort to promote Darwin’s theory of evolution not only earned him the nickname of “Darwin’s Bulldog,” but created for him a reputation for which he is still regarded today. Profiting from his distinction, Huxley critiqued the impact of new science on English civilization in a series of articles, books, and essays, outnumbering those of even the most well known theorists.
Born in 1825 in Ealing, England, Thomas Huxley was the seventh child of George and Rachel Huxley. His father was an unsuccessful mathematics teacher at Ealing School, where Thomas was enrolled at age eight. Unsatisfied with his school training at Ealing and upon his father’s resignation, Thomas moved with his family to his father’s hometown of Coventry in 1835. Having only had two years of formal education, it is amazing that Huxley went on to be one of the most famous of the philosophers and scientists of the nineteenth century(1). On his own time, Thomas could be found reading about science, history, and philosophy until he fell asleep. He also taught himself German by the time he was fifteen. Due to his passion for clarity and structure, Huxley became interested in being a mechanical engineer. However, two of his sisters had married doctors and he took an apprenticeship with a Dr. Chandler and then to his sister’s husband, Dr. Scott. It was during this study that Thomas decided to take up medicine. Because of his achievement in medical science, Huxley received a scholarship to Charing Cross Medical School, where he learned an intense appreciation for the scientific method. Having completed his medical studies and finding the need for intellectual and moral self-discipline, Thomas Huxley received an M.B. degree from London University.
Upon completion of his degree, Huxley joined the Royal Navy and was appointed assistant surgeon on board the H.M.S. Rattlesnake(2). Though he had his degree in medicine, this was the only time in his life he ever practiced it, admitting in his own autobiography that he never “cared about medicine as the art of healing.” While aboard the cockroach-infested and rotting ship, it was dually his duty to assist in surgeries and to scientifically investigate the surface waters of the ocean. He spent a large amount of his time here dissecting and analyzing the mollusks, coelenterates, and tunicates he caught in his homemade meat cover contraption on his journeys to Australia. The dissections he made of his captured sea creatures were very primitive because the laboratory facilities on board the Rattlesnake were far from par. He was still able to keep detailed journals and to write articles that he sent home to a friend, Professor Edward Forbes, in London asking that they be published in scientific journals(2). Included in his articles was the idea that primitive sea creatures developed into vertebrates. He arrived at that hypothesis when he observed the double-layered stomach cavity of a jellyfish, which he believed was similar to the membranes of a vertebrate in the early stages of development(3). He was delighted when he returned to London to find his request had been met and that his ideas had been published. It may also be noted that he “captured” a fiancée, Henrietta Heathorn, during his travels to Sydney!
Just as Thomas Huxley spent his formative years on the Rattlesnake studying invertebrate morphology, Charles Darwin had spent time on the Beagle developing his theories of evolution and natural selection. Darwin calls his voyage on the Beagle the most important event in his life, determining his whole career. The theory by which Darwin is best known is his theory of how the primitive creatures progressed to becoming the organisms that are seen today. He believed in the gradualness of evolutionary change and that all traits were not inherited, but that mutations have occurred to account for the diversity of organisms. Thomas Huxley was one of few to defend the ideas of Darwin in many ways. He gave uninterrupted support for the theories Darwin presented and risked his own reputation in order to uphold Charles Darwin’s(4).
There are three main ways that Huxley supported Darwin. Many investigators have observed that these are the most common and logical explanations for Huxley’s support of Darwinism. First, Huxley thought Darwin provided actual causes of evolution. He had never before seen evidence of the causes of evolution until he read of the many experiments Darwin had conducted to analyze mutations over time in Origin of Species. Another reason that Thomas Huxley supported Darwin’s theory of evolution is that he believed it could be empirically tested. Huxley read of the sweet-pea cross experiments of Darwin and saw that the results could be observed physically, rather than the metaphysical theories of previous evolutionists. The third reason that Huxley supported Charles Darwin is that Darwin’s doctrine was a hypothesis of the order of nature, and as such was capable of guaranteeing the harmonious pattern he demanded. Huxley had been searching for a practical, organized theory by which to explain the progression of species. He found this in Darwin’s Origin of Species. Regardless of the evidence of truth that Darwin presented, Huxley also criticized his theory in some areas.
There are two main reasons that Huxley did not wholly support the opinions of Darwin. First, one area that Huxley did not support is natural selection. He did not believe that natural selection could be experimentally proven. Without empirical proof for this part of Darwin’s theory, Huxley refused to accept it scientifically. The second reason Huxley didn’t fully support Darwin is that he believed Darwin’s theory had to be accepted overall as “absolute,” and that Darwin’s attitude was more pragmatic. Also, it is additionally essential to note that aside from the crustaceans, Huxley believed only in the evolution of vertebrates, not of invertebrates into vertebrates(5).
Huxley is also credited with the invention of the word agnostic. After all the years he had spent in Conventry sitting in a church pew listening to and disagreeing with the evangelical preachers, he saw that agnosticism was the only way that his research could be fully supported and rationalized. By making his views of “agnosticism” and not “atheism” clear, he attempted to avoid the criticisms of Victorian society as a “Devil’s preacher.”(6)
Huxley’s individual contributions to science have often been neglected. It is important however that his strong personality and multifarious interests do not distract from his significant contributions to the world of biological sciences aside from his impressions on Darwin’s theory. He made not only a world of discoveries about ocean life, but critiqued every aspect of English culture. Huxley set a precedent for scientists to remain neutral rather than biased in considering new theories. In addition to his concern for moral behavior in the sciences and humanities, he rejected many positions of consequence at Edinburgh, Oxford, and Harvard, to continue his method of freethinking and was not concerned with wealth of money as much as wealth of knowledge. He gained his consequence through the fame of his writings and studies. This seems a respectable point to mention about Thomas Huxley.
As a man always investigating the why of things, Thomas Huxley left a lasting impression on the world of science and culture. Not being held back by his poor education or by the fact his family was not wealthy, Huxley went on to advance the understanding of the evolution theory of Charles Darwin. Firm in his beliefs and practical in his evidence, Huxley risked his reputation for an issue as controversial then as it is in today’s world.
NOTES
1. Bibby, Cyril. Scientist Extraordinary: The Life and Scientific Work of Thomas Henry Huxley 1825-1895. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1972.
2. Ashforth, Albert. Thomas Henry Huxley. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1969.
3. Irvine, William. Thomas Henry Huxley. New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1960.
4. Huxley, Julian and H.B.D. Kettlewell. Charles Darwin and his world. New York: The Viking Press, 1965.
5. Huxley, Thomas H. Darwiniana. New York: AMS Press, 1896.
6. Irvine, William. Apes, Angels, and Victorians. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1955.
REFERENCES
Di Gregorio, Mario A. T.H. Huxley’s Place in Natural Science. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984.
Marshall, A.J. Darwin and Huxley. Sydney: Hodder and Stoughton, 1970.
