An understanding of how English surnames developed may help writers to choose believable names for their characters. Before about 1300, no one had a surname that was passed on from generation to generation, and very few people had surnames at all. Those who had were chiefly the Norman French aristocracy. Their surnames might be derived from theirFrench estates -- Geoffrey de Mandeville, Hugh d’Avranches, Hugh de Morville, Simon de Montfort; from their lineage -- Richard Fitz (fils) Gilbert, William Fitz Osbern, William Fitz Herbert; or be a nickname -- Robert Curthose, William Rufus, Henry Beauclerc. Few, if any, of these names survived the Middle Ages. Most Norman French aristocrats were illiterate. By the time they became literate, and began to write their names, their names had become Anglicized, or they had adopted new names taken from their English estates. Many English surnames which either appear to be of French origin, or have an “upperclass” look on paper, are not pronounced as they are spelt. Beauchamp is pronounced Beecham, Mainwaring as Mannering. Featherstonehaugh and Cholmondeley are Fanshawe and Chumley.

Gradually, everyone acquired a surname. At first, these names were not passed from one generation to the next, and a man might have several in the course of his life. He might start his existence as Will Dickson, then become known by his trade -- Will Potter or Will Smith -- then, if he moved away from home, might be known in his new town by the name of the birthplace - Will York or Will Chester. Eventually, these names began to be passed on from one generation to the next, so a man might be called Potter even if he followed a different trade. By about 1350, everyone in southern and Midland England had a hereditary name. The process took up to a hundred years longer in northern England.

The landed classes (not necessarily titled aristocrats) tended to take their names from the place on which their land was located. Even in later centuries, a surname derived from a place name, either real or invented, is more likely to give an impression of wealth and status than a name derived from a craft or trade. Of course, if your wealthy family is nouveau riche, then a name like Potter, Butcher, or Tanner would convey that very well.

Names derived from occupations make up a large proportion of English surnames. Cloth-making was the principal industry in Medieval England, so names taken from the various stages of cloth-making -- Weaver, Webster, Fuller, Dyer, and Shearer -- are quite common. Taylor, Draper, Brewer, Baker, Mason, and Taverner were all common trades in towns which had given rise to surnames. Smith, Miller, and Carpenter might be found in either town or country. Because of the importance of the wool trade in Medieval England, Shepherd was quite common (still is) and is also one of the few surnames derived from agricultural occupations. Occupational names give the impression of a respectable but not extremely wealthy family.

Before the late eighteenth century, and even well into the nineteenth century in the countryside, family names should be appropriate for the part of the country in which the story is set. Every region of England has a group of names which are particularly common there; even today, some names are more common in the north of England than in the south. Sugden and Ackroyd are typical Lancashire or Yorkshire names. Cornwall is part of England, but the Cornish people are of Celtic origin, and their names reflect this, as in this traditional saying:

Cornish people commonly have names beginning with one of those three syllables -- Trelawney, Trevithick, Penhaligon, Poldark. Scottish, Welsh, or Irish names are unlikely to appear among the long-term residents of English country districts, although there are reasons why outsiders might be there temporarily.

Names derived from features of the landscape have a solid ring to them and would be suitable for a fictional family who have been settled in one district for generations -- Broadfield, Oakley, Ashley, Longwood. Short names derived from the landscape are good for minor characters who are not required to make much impact -- Field, Wood, Heath, Brook.

There is a group of English surnames derived from personal characteristics, such as Redhead, Short, and Strong. “Snell” meant “quick,” and “Coward” meant “Cowherd,” not that the person was cowardly. It is suggested that the original Bishop or Pope might have been a rather pompous person, and, as is well known from the Robin Hood stories, John Little was actually a big man. There is also a large group of names describing a person’s lineage -- Dickson or Richardson, Harrison, Johnson or Jackson, Peterson, Robinson, Thompson, Wilson or Williamson. These can, of course, only be derived from first names that were in use in England during the central Middle Ages, so you will not find people called Keithson or Darrenson.

Because of the small number of Christian names used in the past, in small communities where people did not move far, there might be several men with the same first name and surname. Nicknames were often used, yet their origin and meaning were usually obscure. In close-knit communities, nicknames not only helped to distinguish one man from another, they also kept outsiders at a distance, and, if anything shady transpired, made it difficult for authorities to determine exactly who was involved.

Many surnames were also derived from place names -- a place of any size, from a farm or hamlet where their family lived, even major cities. But the origin and meaning of place names in England is yet another story...