The origins and meanings of the place names of England reflect the variety of peoples and languages which have combined to form the nation. The earliest inhabitants whose place names survive today were the Celtic or British, who were here before the Romans. Several river names, for example -- Thames, Derwent, and Severn -- are thought to be of pre-Roman origin.

The Romans left many visible reminders of their presence in Britain, but apart from Londinium, most of their place names have been superseded. Roman towns, however, can often be identified by names ending in “caster,” “cester,” or “chester,” derived from the Latin “castra,” meaning a camp or fortified place. Lancaster, Leicester, and Winchester are three examples. Many became county towns and cathedral cities, so a name ending in “chester” or “caster” in the north of England, would be very suitable I a novel for a medium sized, provincial, non-industrial town.

Latin attachments to place names, such as Magna and Parva, usually originated with medieval clerks, when Latin was the language of official documents. The local inhabitants almost certainly said “Great” and “Little.” The seaside towns of Lyme Regis and Bognor Regis owe their Latin additions to their associations with George III and George V respectively (although George V had his own word for Bognor, which probably can’t be mentioned here.)

When the Romans left, the Celtic or British inhabitants remained, but the Anglo Saxons who invaded and settled the part of Britain now known as England from the mid-fifth century onward gradually pushed the British westward into Cornwall, Wales, and Cumbria, which takes its name from “Cymry,” the British people’s name for themselves. Attempts at communication between the British and the English often resulted in confusion. Afon or Avon is the British word for water. The English assumed it was the name of a specific river -- hence, there are several rivers in England called Avon.

The Saxons who settled in part of southeast England -- the east Saxons -- occupied the area which became the county of Essex. Those in the south -- the south Saxons -- settled in what became Sussex. Between Sussex and Essex is Middlesex, the land of the Middle Saxons. In England, people never say “Essex County” or “Sussex County.” One exception -- it is correct to say “County Durham.” Throughout the last 100 years, county names and boundaries have been altered in local government reorganisation. The county of Avon was carved out of Gloucestershire and Somerset. Rutland, England’s smallest county, was swallowed up by Leicestershire, although the inhabitants of Rutland have never recognized the fact. Bournemouth used to be in Hampshire, now it’s in Dorset. Slough (which rhymes with now) was in Buckinghamshire; now it’s in Berkshire (pronounced Barkshire). County allegiances are still quite strong today; get it wrong and you risk alienating a lot of readers.

Most of the place names found in England today were given by the English settlers prior to 1066. Places called Newton were probably new at the time of Domesday Book in 1086. Nearly all place names existed by 1300. “Ham” and “ton” are the most common endings, often with a person’s name or landscape feature attached. Lewisham, now a suburb of London, was originally Leofsige’s village. Alfreton, in Derbyshire, was Aelfhere’s settlement. Stone Street meant a road with a paved surface, so nearly always refers to a Roman road. Hythe meant a landing place on a seacoast or riverbank. Names referring to animals are common, for example Deerlip, Hartley, and Foxton. The presence of bears, boars, and wolves is also recalled in place names.

Other endings commonly found in English place names are “ley,” a clearing in woodland, and “hurst,” meaning wooded hill. Because much of England was heavily wooded, many place names refer to trees or woodland. “Eg,” now spelt and pronounced “ey,” meant an island, or higher ground in marshland. The part of Somerset where King Alfred took refuge from the Danes is called Athelney, prince’s or nobleman’s island. Westminster Abbey was built on a spot in marshland on the banks of the Thames called Thorney Island -- a bit of Anglo Saxon tautology.

Westminster was so called because it was the minster, or abbey church, west of London. Towns such as Warminster and Leominster (pronounced Lemster) also took their names from their minster churches. A place name ending in “minster” would be appropriate for a town with a large church or former monastery. Additionally, “Chip” and “Chipping” come from the old English word for a market, therefore small market towns have names such as Chipping Norton and Chipping Sodbury.

From about the year 800, the Vikings from Norway and Denmark began first to raid, then to invade, and finally to settle parts of England. They colonized the north and east, bringing their own language, Old Norse, founding some new settlements and renaming others. Derby (pronounced Darby) was known by the English as Northworthy. “By,” “thorpe,” and “thwaite” are the most common Old Norse place name elements. Ingarsby was Ingar’s settlement. Ravensthorpe could mean Hraefn’s newly cultivated land, or could take its name from the bird. Thwaite was a clearing. Place names with these elements are not found outside the part of England settled by the Scandinavians.

The Vikings also brought their own words for features of the landscape. In parts of the north of England, a stream is a beck, a hillside a fell. They also brought the letter “k,” which was previously unused in the English language. Place names such as Kettering, Keswick, and Kendal are found in the area settled by the Vikings. They also used a “k” where the English used “ch,” hence many places called Kirkby or Kirby, the settlement with a church.

In 1066 came the Norman Conquest. Unlike the Anglo Saxon and Viking invasions, this did not bring a great influx of new settlers. Only the ruling classes changed, and eventually the Norman French became indistinguishable from the English. The Normans established few new settlements and surviving Norman French place names have become Anglicized; Belvoir is pronounced Beaver, Beaulieu is Bewley. Some names which appear French were given by eighteenth or nineteenth century suburban builders, who wanted to make their developments sound desirable.

Occasionally, nineteenth century railway builders also had to invent new names when they built stations where no towns or villages existed. New towns or suburbs then grew up around the railway stations. Spellings of some place names only became fixed at this time. Some completely new towns were also founded by nineteenth century industrialists for their workers, therefore, a character in a sixteenth-century novel could not visit Bournville, Saltaire, or Port Sunlight.

In such a brief article, it’s impossible to provide more than an introduction to the subject of English place names. I hope, however, I have managed to suggest how writers can choose convincing names for their invented locations, and some of the pitfalls of which they should beware.