Answer one question from this Section.
You should attempt all parts of the question you choose.

Question 1

Total for this question: 30 marks

(a) Outline two ways the body responds to stressors.

(3 marks + 3 marks)

Having perceived a stimulus, the brain may interpret this stimulus as being threatening. If it does this, stressor results in two bodily responses:
1 Nervous response: The hypothalamus activates the autonomic nervous system which stimulates the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline and noradrenaline in to the blood stream.
2 Hormonal response: The hypothalamus also stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland to release the hormone adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) which is carried in the bloodstream to the adrenal cortex, stimulating the release of corticosteroids (e.g. cortisol) in to the bloodstream.
The nervous response is fast-acting but short-lived, whereas the hormonal response is slower but has a longer lasting effect on the body.

(b) Outline two factors which can modify the effects of stressors.

(6 marks)

Individual differences, culture, gender, drugs

(c) Describe the procedures and findings of one study into the effects of stress on the immune system.

(6 marks)

Kiecolt-Glaser compared the activity of the immune system of a group of people experiencing high levels of stress (e.g. due to unhappy marriages, medical students taking exams, people caring for Alzheimer patients) with a control group (who were experiencing normal levels of stress). They found the immune systems of the high stress group to be significantly weaker.

(d) "To be effective, stress management techniques must target both the psychological and the physical aspects of stress."

Consider the effectiveness of physical approaches to stress management.

(12 marks)

The physical approaches to stress management include drug treatments and use of biofeedback.
Drugs used include anti-anxiety drugs (such as valium) antidepressants (such as prozac) and beta blockers (such as inderal). They work by altering the neurotransmitter activity in the brain which create the symptoms of stress.
The advantages of these drugs include that they are fast acting and do not require any effort on the part of the individual. However, the patient may become dependent on the drug, requiring more and more to have the same effect. They are addictive, and may have many unpleasant side-effects, such as drowsiness, apathy or worse. Because of this, they should only be taken for a short periods of 1-3 months. They do not remove the source of stress - they only reduce the physiological symptoms. Therefore, when the patient stops taking the drugs, they may have to face the same problems (or worse) than they were experiencing before hand.
Biofeedback involves recording the body's physiological response to stress such as heart rate, blood pressure or sweating (the galvanic skin response).The individual then learns strategies to control these physiological symptoms and uses them when they are stressed.
This has been found to be very effective at reducing the physiological symptoms of stress in some individuals, but is often no more effective than muscle relaxation techniques. The equipment is quite expensive and cumbersome and it may take considerable time for the individual to learn the techniques successfully. It is not always practical (e.g. for a teacher in the classroom) and requires more effort on the part of the patient. For these reasons, it is not a commonly used method of reducing stress. Furthermore, it also does not actually tackle the actual source of the stress - the perceived demands of the situation.

Question 2

Total for this question: 30 marks

(a) Outline the main features of Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome.

(6 marks)

Selye described three stages to the physical response to stress which he called the General Adaptation Syndrome or GAS:
The alarm stage - the stressor is perceived, causing the release of ACTH and activation of the autonomic nervous system. This leads to the release of hormones such as adrenaline, noradrenaline and cortisol from the adrenal glands. These hormones cause an increase in heart rate, blood pressure and sweating. They also cause the mobilization of energy reserves (glucose is released into the bloodstream). This stage has been termed the 'fight or flight' reaction.
The resistance stage - during this stage, the body begins to adapt to the stressor. Release of adrenaline and noradrenaline is reduced, but still stay higher than normal. Heart rate, blood pressure and blood sugar levels return to normal.
The exhaustion stage - if the stressor is long lasting effects of the prolonged drain on the body's resources begin to cause problems such as raised blood pressure, ulcers and depression. The body's tissue and organs are damaged - this stage is associated with diseases of adaptation or stress related illnesses.

(b) Describe the aims and conclusions of one study into the role of 'control' in stress.

(6 marks)

Glass et al. used noise to produce stress amongst participants carrying out a simple task. They measured physiological response to stress (GSR or sweating) and the number of errors made. Fewer errors were made and their physiological response was less when the noise was controllable.

(c) Identify and explain two stressors commonly found in the workplace.

(3 marks + 3 marks)

Physical environment: Temperature may cause stress if it is either too hot or too cold. Similarly, lighting may be too bright or too dim causing stress. Space and how the work place is set out is also important. For these reasons, psychologists have been asked to advise employers on the best conditions for their employees. Too much stress may have a negative effect on performance and too little may cause the employee to not be alert (falling asleep on the job can be disastrous for an air traffic controller!)
Role ambiguity: A major factor contributing to work related stress is a lack of clarity about the requirement of an employees work role. This may result from have no clear (or contradictory) guidelines or standards of performance.

(d) "Although commonly accepted, there is little evidence for a direct link between the stress of life events and physical illness."

To what extent does research (theories and/or studies) show a relationship between stress and physical illness?

(12 marks)

A great deal of research has shown a link between stress and illness - the more stress we experience in our lives, the more tend to get ill. Stress has been linked with high blood pressure, heart problems, migraines, asthma, ulcers, eczema and cancer. However, most of this evidence is not direct evidence, but is based on correlations between stress and the occurrence of illnesses. However, this does not necessarily mean that stress causes illness. Maybe illness actually increases the amount of stress we experience or perhaps if we are stressed, this increases the likelihood that we engage in another activity which actually causes illness (e.g. people who experience more stress may smoke more).
However, there is evidence to suggest that when we experience stress, the activity of the immune system is suppressed (Kiecolt-Glaser). Since this normally defends us from infection, we will be more likely to become ill. This may explain the link that has been found between throat infections and stress producing life change (Evans and Edgerton, 1991). Furthermore, it seems that our body takes longer to heal when we are experiencing stress. Also, since the body responds to stress by increasing heart rate a blood pressure, this will increase the strain on the heart or blood vessels, causing them to be damaged or break. The body also increases the amount of glucose and fatty acids in the blood which may be laid down on the walls of the blood vessels which may eventually cause these blood vessels to get blocked. Such blockages, damage to or breaking of blood vessels can cause haemorrhages, strokes other cardiovascular problems. In conclusion, although stress has been connected to a number of different physical illnesses, and possible mechanisms have been found for how stress may lead to such physical problems, it is difficult to establish a cause and effect relationship in all cases since a number of other factors may also contribute.

SECTION B - Individual Differences

Answer one question from this Section.
You should attempt all parts of the question you choose.

Question 3

Total for this question: 30 marks

(a) Outline two attempts to define abnormality.

(3 marks + 3 marks)

Statistical infrequency: according to this definition, psychological abnormality can be defined as any characteristic or behaviour which in not normal, uncommon or unusual. Any behaviour or characteristic deviating significantly from this norm may therefore be considered to be abnormal. This definition has been used to identify people with abnormally low IQ scores. Since the average IQ is 100, anyone with an IQ which is significantly lower than this could be considered to have abnormally low intelligence.
Violation from social norms: society can be thought of as having a set of unwritten rules and moral standards. Anyone who violates these may these may be regarded as abnormal. For example, if we saw someone spitting in church or singing loudly in the library, or having sex on a pavement, we would be likely to consider this behaviour to be very odd since this behaviour would not be expected of us in this context. At one time, homosexuality was considered to be abnormal because it was not what was expected or considered desirable by society.

(b) Outline two assumptions made by the biological model in relation to the causes of abnormality.

(3 marks + 3 marks)

1. Mental disorders have an organic origin. They arise from structural abnormalities in the brain, neurochemical or hormonal imbalances, or the cause may be genetic. Because both psychological and physical health are both seen to arise from an organic basis, people with mental health problems are regarded as being ill.
2. Mental disorders are best treated by physical means. For this reason, they are best treated using surgical techniques (to correct structural abnormalities), drugs (to correct neurochemical or hormonal imbalances, or potentially through genetic engineering (to correct genetic vulnerability to mental illness).

(c) Describe three differences in the clinical characteristics of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.

(2 marks + 2 marks + 2 marks)

1. Anorexia nervosa is characterised by a refusal to maintain a body weight normal for age and height (weight is less than 85% of that expected).
With bulimia nervosa the individual may be any weight.

2. Anorexia nervosa is characterised by a restricted eating in an effort to lose weight.
With bulimia nervosa, the individual binge eats - excessive quantities consumed without a sense of control over what or how much is consumed.

3. In bulimia nervosa, danger of weight gain is usually compensated for by self-induced vomiting and the misuse of laxatives &/or diuretics.
These are not characteristic of anorexia nervosa.

(d) "Anorexia nervosa is a psychological rather than a biological disorder.'

To what extent does research (theories and/or studies) support the view that anorexia nervosa is caused by psychological factors?

(12 marks)

Many different explanations have been offered to explain the cause of anorexia nervosa. Biological explanations have suggested genetic, neurochemical and hormonal explanations. Twin studies have found that genetic relatedness appears to be important. However, since the concordance rates for anorexia nervosa amongst identical twins is only 55%, genetics alone cannot explain anorexia nervosa. Some researchers have suggested that the hypothalamus or various neurotransmitters hormones or even viruses may cause anorexia nervosa, but as yet is inconclusive.

Behavioural psychologists have suggested that we are influenced by our upbringing and environmental factors, such as the message that 'slim is beautiful', which is promoted by the media. The idea that environmental forces may contribute to eating disorders is supported by the fact that eating disorders is more prevalent in countries which associate slimness with attractiveness. Furthermore, Nasser (1986) compared 50 Egyptian women in London universities with 60 Egyptian women in Cairo universities and found that while none of the women in Cairo developed eating disorders, 12% of those in London did. However, the behavioural model has been criticised for being too simplistic. For example, it does not explain the fact that anorexics often have a distorted body image. Such distorted thinking is better explained by the cognitive model which suggests that anorexics display irrational beliefs, such as the belief that their sense of self worth is determined by their physical appearance. However, it is not clear whether these irrational beliefs can be attributed to causing the disorder, or whether they arise as a consequence of it. Humanistic psychologists

Question 4

Total for this question: 30 marks

(a) Explain what is meant by the 'deviation from social norms' definition of abnormality and give one limitation of this definition. (3 marks + 3 marks)

(b) Outline the implications of the behavioural model for the treatment of abnormal behaviour. (6 marks)

(c) Outline one explanation of anorexia nervosa. (6 marks)

(d) "Abnormal behaviour never has a single cause."

Compare two models of abnormal behaviour in terms of their views on the causes of abnormal behaviour. (12 marks)