SECTION B - Individual Differences

Answer one question from this Section.
You should attempt all parts of the question you choose.

Question 3

Total for this question: 30 marks

(a) Outline two attempts to define abnormality.

(3 marks + 3 marks)

Statistical infrequency: according to this definition, psychological abnormality can be defined as any characteristic or behaviour which in not normal, uncommon or unusual. Any behaviour or characteristic deviating significantly from this norm may therefore be considered to be abnormal. This definition has been used to identify people with abnormally low IQ scores. Since the average IQ is 100, anyone with an IQ which is significantly lower than this could be considered to have abnormally low intelligence.
Violation from social norms: society can be thought of as having a set of unwritten rules and moral standards. Anyone who violates these may these may be regarded as abnormal. For example, if we saw someone spitting in church or singing loudly in the library, or having sex on a pavement, we would be likely to consider this behaviour to be very odd since this behaviour would not be expected of us in this context. At one time, homosexuality was considered to be abnormal because it was not what was expected or considered desirable by society.

(b) Outline two assumptions made by the biological model in relation to the causes of abnormality.

(3 marks + 3 marks)

I. Mental disorders have an organic origin. They arise from structural abnormalities in the brain, neurochemical or hormonal imbalances, or the cause may be genetic. Because both psychological and physical health are both seen to arise from an organic basis, people with mental health problems are regarded as being ill.
II. Mental disorders are best treated by physical means. For this reason, they are best treated using surgical techniques (to correct structural abnormalities), drugs (to correct neurochemical or hormonal imbalances, or potentially through genetic engineering (to correct genetic vulnerability to mental illness).

(c) Describe three differences in the clinical characteristics of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.

(2 marks + 2 marks + 2 marks)

I. Anorexia nervosa is characterised by a refusal to maintain a body weight normal for age and height (weight is less than 85% of that expected).
With bulimia nervosa the individual may be any weight.
II. Anorexia nervosa is characterised by a restricted eating in an effort to lose weight.
With bulimia nervosa, the individual binge eats - excessive quantities consumed without a sense of control over what or how much is consumed.
III. In bulimia nervosa, danger of weight gain is usually compensated for by self-induced vomiting and the misuse of laxatives &/or diuretics.
These are not characteristic of anorexia nervosa.

(d) "Anorexia nervosa is a psychological rather than a biological disorder.'

To what extent does research (theories and/or studies) support the view that anorexia nervosa is caused by psychological factors?

(12 marks)

Biological explanations have suggested genetic, neurochemical and hormonal explanations. Twin studies have found that genetic relatedness appears to be important. However, since the concordance rates for anorexia nervosa amongst identical twins are only 55%, genetics alone cannot explain anorexia nervosa. Some researchers have suggested that the hypothalamus or various neurotransmitters, hormones or even viruses may cause anorexia nervosa, but as yet, evidence is inconclusive.
Behavioural psychologists have suggested that we are influenced by our upbringing and environmental factors, such as the message that 'slim is beautiful', which is promoted by the media. The idea that environmental forces may contribute to eating disorders is supported by the fact that eating disorders is more prevalent in countries which associate slimness with attractiveness.
Cognitive psychologists have suggested that it is the anorexics distorted body image and overemphasis on physical appearance to assess self-worth that may be responsible for them developing eating disorders. However, it is not clear whether these cognitive distortions and irrational beliefs actually cause anorexia and where these cognitions come from.
According to the humanistic model, anorexia arises from a struggle for individual identity and control within the family. There may also be great pressure on the individual (particularly from the family) to be successful and they may judge themselves very negatively, but it is not clear why these problems should lead the individual to focus on their eating behaviour.
In conclusion, no single model can satisfactorily explain anorexia nervosa. Perhaps the best way of understanding the cause is to consider that a number of factors may contribute to the disorder, and that each factor is best understood using the most appropriate model.

Question 4

Total for this question: 30 marks

(a) Explain what is meant by the 'deviation from social norms' definition of abnormality and give one limitation of this definition.

(3 marks + 3 marks)

Violation from social norms: Society can be thought of as having a set of unwritten rules and moral standards. Anyone who violates these may these may be regarded as abnormal. For example, if we saw someone spitting in church or singing loudly in the library, or having sex on a pavement, we would be likely to consider this behaviour to be very odd since this behaviour would not be expected of us in this context.
Beliefs about what is acceptable changes over time: At one time, homosexuality was considered to be abnormal because it was not what was expected or considered desirable by society. It was illegal to practice homosexuality and was defined as a mental disorder. Today, attitudes have greatly changes and it is generally considered not to be deviant, at least by mental health professionals.

(b) Outline the implications of the behavioural model for the treatment of abnormal behaviour.

(6 marks)

According to the behavioural model, all behaviours are learnt through the processes of classical and operant conditioning. Therefore, undesirable or maladaptive behaviours can be unlearnt and replaced with more desirable/adaptive behaviours. Behavioural therapies and behaviour modification have successfully been used to treat phobias, anti-social behaviours and other psychological problems.

(c) Outline one explanation of anorexia nervosa.

(6 marks)

Behavioural psychologists have suggested that we may learn a maladaptive behaviour such as anorexia from our upbringing and environmental factors, such as the message that 'slim is beautiful', which is promoted by the media. The person may have learnt to associate being slim with feeling good about themselves through a process of classical conditioning. They may receive the praise and admiration of others for losing weight and this may reinforce their slimming behaviour through a process of operant conditioning. Furthermore, the anorexic may receive attention because of their refusal to eat (which may reinforce their behaviour) and may also use their refusal to eat as a way of punishing their parents.

(d) "Abnormal behaviour never has a single cause."

Compare two models of abnormal behaviour in terms of their views on the causes of abnormal behaviour.

(12 marks)

According to the psychodynamic model, personality is made up of the id (innate biological desires, working on the 'pleasure principle'), superego (learnt moral standards), and the ego. Psychological problems originate from unresolved unconscious conflicts (especially from childhood) repressed into the unconscious by defence mechanisms (e.g. denial). These may influence our behaviour at an unconscious level and manifest themselves in later life as psychological problems. If the ego is too weak, the id may dominate, leading to antisocial behaviours (e.g. conduct and personality disorders). If the superego dominates, this may lead to neurotic disorders (e.g. phobias).
According to the behavioural model, all behaviours are learnt through the processes of classical and operant conditioning. For example, a phobia of dogs may develop after being bitten by a dog, resulting in associating dogs with the conditioned fear response. Another individual may have learnt behaviours because they have been rewarded for them. For example, praise from others for losing weight may reinforce behaviours, through a process of operant conditioning, leading to the symptoms of anorexia nervosa.
Critics claim that behaviourists focus only on the symptoms and ignore the underlying emotional problems. The psychodynamic model has been criticized because of the difficulties in finding evidence to support the theories.
Whereas the psychodynamic model sees psychological problems as arising from internal mechanisms within the individual, the behavioural model sees psychological problems as being learnt due to environmental forces.
Although each model is able to provide satisfactory explanations for the causes of some psychological disorders, no single model is able to provide a satisfactory explanation for all psychological disorders. Probably the best way of understanding the cause of a disorder is to consider that a number of factors may contribute to the disorder, and that each factor is best understood using the most appropriate model.