Dag Hammarsköld

There has been no other international institution so covered in criticisms and praise as the United Nations. This is due to the contrast between the initial hopes for the organization and its accomplishments. The UN has been used as a symbolic structure of morality and justice where people and their leaders like to associate their nations with. It is used as a symbol of moral redemption in the world full of conflict. Thoughts as these display misleading idealistic, goals of national foreign policies and of trying to push nations into greater international cooperation, yet they do not reflect the real role which the United Nations actually plays in international politics.

  International peace was thought to be secured in 1945 when the United Nations was created by working through the member states and the great powers. The beginning of the Cold War diminished these thoughts and many people viewed the UN as an organization with little, if any, influence on the behavior and actions of the states. It did have several smaller successes or influence during the first years of its existence, yet far from the initial hopes of the organization. Its influence was tarnished by the fact that most of the military force and political direction came from the United States. By the mid 1950’s it was realized that the UN had been the victim of unrealistic hopes on one hand and despair on the other. The issues during Trygve Lie’s role as Secretary General, dealt mostly with decolonization processes in India, Indonesia, and the former Italian colonies.

  Dag Hammarskjöld served as Secretary General for the United Nations for eight years from 1953-1961. During this time there was a significant change within the political aspect of the United Nations. The conflicts of the time in China, Korea, Africa, and the Middle East, were crises dealt with directly through the United Nations. These and other issues involved not only the member nations, but also the diplomatic responsibility of the Secretary General, as well as the bodies under him. There were new demands being placed on the organization in terms of its role in international affairs and conflicts. At the time, there were no guidelines on how these new, evolutionary factors should be dealt with or handled.

  Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld was the one individual who influenced the development more than any other, who commented on it more than any other, and who could understand it better than any one else at the time. He came into the evolving international scene and became the leading character in of its development. He helped create a new political role for the UN with his great understanding of international politics and his exceptional use of diplomacy.

  There are two main focuses of this study, a presentation of Hammarskjöld’s conception of the United Nations, and to present some of his diplomatic activity as Secretary General. First Hammarskjöld will be introduced, his background and his political attitudes that he held when he entered the United Nations. Then his views on the goals for the UN in general will be discussed. What he felt existed and what he felt should exist coincided yet differed. Then I will describe some of Hammarskjöld’s strategies and actions taken to implement these goals. These are still very relevant to today’s dealings and activities at the UN, which is pretty much the same international system of fifty years ago.

Background

  Dag Agne Carl Hammarskjöld was born in Jonkoping, south central Sweden on July 29, 1905. He was the son of Hjalmar Hammarskjöld, a well known public figure in Sweden at the time. He came from an aristocratic family who traced their origins back to the seventeenth century. His father held positions of civil servant, professor of law, Prime Minister of Sweden during WWI, and governor of the Province of Uppsala. He was also involved in international affairs by being a chairman of the League of Nations.

  Hammarskjold studied political economy, philosophy, literature, and French at the University of Uppsala. He was at the top of his class at time of his graduation. He then enrolled at the University of Stockholm where he earned his doctorate in economics. During this time, he also served as Secretary of the Government’s Committee on Unemployment which helped distinguish him as a brilliant economist. At the age of twenty, he became the Secretary of the National Bank of Sweden and was appointed Under-Secretary of Finance. Despite Hammarskjöld’s young age, he had proved to be an extremely good economist and scholar. In 1941, he was appointed Chairman of the Board of the Swedish National Bank and by doing so he had by his 27th birthday become a very influential and important figure in Swedish economics and public life.

  After WWII, he was appointed advisor to the cabinet on international economic problems resulting from the war and concentrated on Sweden’s trade policies. In 1947, he became Secretary General of the Foreign Office in Sweden and by doing so, he became a leading figure in the framing of Sweden’s international economic policies. In order to devote more time and effort to international matters, he stepped down from his position as Chairman of the Board of the Swedish National Bank. That same year, he was appointed head of Sweden’s delegation to the European Economic Cooperation and vice chairman of the EEC’s Executive Committee. By accomplishing all this, he gained respect from many peers and diplomats around the world, who nominated him for the position of Secretary General of the United Nations in 1953. Before becoming the Secretary General, he held the position as Deputy Foreign Minster in 1951, in the Swedish cabinet. Here, he dealt with Sweden’s foreign economic relations. It has been said that he was mostly an economic expert rather than a great politician in these roles. His ability to bring parties together either in the Swedish government or in the EEC was seen as great economic expertise rather than any political skill. At the time, none of his peers had any idea of Hammarskjöld’s great political skills that he demonstrated later in his work in the United Nations. Many felt that he almost shunned the idea of publicity and political involvement.

Political Attitudes

  Hammarskjold aided the Social Democrat party in Sweden, yet remained politically independent his whole life. Before becoming Secretary General in 1953, he had already developed several distinct political attitudes. These had a strong influence on his thought of the United Nations, and can be recognized throughout his statements concerning the UN. He was politically and culturally a European and a Westerner. Hammarskjöld held a deep foundation in his Christian religion and his study of Western philosophy and history. He believed that one could not claim these Western values of intellectual liberty and social justice for oneself and one’s own group without advocating them for all people and all groups. Prior to coming to the United Nations, Hammarskjöld had already considered himself philosophically to be a citizen of the world as a result of his adherence to Western values of civilization. Therefore, the transition to the position of an international civil servant who served the international community did not require a radical change in perspective for him. In fact, it gave him the opportunity to realize the values in which he already had come to believe.

  Dag Hammarskjöld’s belief in the equality of men and the ethical desirability of social justice were deeply rooted in his total outlook on life. His basic outlook on life came from the tradition of service to one’s fellow man and an acceptance of the values of Christianity, which he inherited from his mother and father.

  Hammarskjold was involved in the Swedish Lutheran Church during his youth which is what strengthened his belief in social justice. The teachings of the church dealt with the social, economic, and industrial problems of society. His concern with social justice and his work for the Social Democratic Party in Sweden did not mean that he was a member of the party. He never associated himself with any party because he felt that his dedication was to that as the role of civil servant who serves the state and not any group within it. Through out his work in the United Nations, he showed the same pragmatism in combination with a strong commitment to the ethical principles of the organization. This absence of preconceived notions regarding how problems should be dealt with helped him play a constructive role in negotiations among conflicting parties, and it usually helped him avoid alienating the parties with whom he was working.

  As previously mentioned, Hammarskjöld’s family is dated back into the seventeenth century. This family left a tradition of civil service and was firmly founded on law. Hammarskjöld believed very deeply in this. He felt it very important to have impartial civil servants whose obligations were to serve the state rather than any of the groups within and to provide impartial advice to the government. He recognized the moral obligation of a civil servant to society as a whole might come to conflict with his own ideas concerning the policies which society should follow, but he thought that the commitment to serve society as a whole must be the basis for action. He felt that the civil servants were bound to implement the policies of authoritative political organs within the state, and that they did have influence in formulating these policies as well. They were able to speak and think more freely than any of the politicians involved regarding any problems due to their freedom of ties to any specific groups in society.

  His belief in the impartiality of civil servants carried over into his work in the United Nations. He pushed for the members of the organization to respect the impartiality and international character of the personnel in the Secretariat in order to permit these international civil servants to serve effectively the states and the cause of peace. In hoping for states to settle disputes peacefully, he called for and preferred private negotiations rather that public statements.

  Hammarskjold felt that it was very important to recognize small states’ influence on international politics and to protect their independence. This stemmed from his strong association with his native country, Sweden, and his service to the country. Sweden has maintained independence for over two hundred years by pursuing neutrality, which Hammarskjöld adhered to strongly. Despite the smaller nations right to pursue their independent policies, they could still play an influential role in preserving world peace. The smaller states could act as mediators to conflicts between any larger nations. They were relied upon by Hammarskjöld to put pressure on the Great Powers and any other states involved in a conflict to act in a peaceful manner.

  Moral values and ethics were something that Hammarskjöld felt vital to international cooperation. The influence of ethical values on the foreign policies of states is less than on the actions of individuals in a society but that it would be wrong to say that such values are without influence in the international sphere. He felt that this influence of moral values on foreign policies was likely to increase as a result of greater international cooperation in international organizations like the United Nations. With increased cooperation, he saw the emergence of common values among nations and a greater responsibility of governments to the opinions of other nations. During his time as Secretary General he sought to increase the influence of the United Nations decisions and moral values in international relations. He hoped that through cooperation the governments and populations of states would became responsive to the value judgements of foreign peoples as they were expressed in the UN organs and would realize that they shared common interests and common ideals with these foreign groups.

The Objectives of the United Nations

  Dag Hammarskjöld felt that the end goal of the United Nations was "to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war," but he noted that its ability to realize this goal of peace was dependent upon its ability to promote five principles or objectives which are in the Purposes and Principles of the Charter. He described these objectives as the prevention of armed conflict through negotiation, the prohibition of the use of force, equal economic opportunity, political equality, and the rule of law or justice. These principles are interdependent of a total approach to the relationship of humans, whether between individuals in a state, or between peoples grouped into states. He saw the attempt on the part of the international community to establish its relations along the lines of these principles as an extension of a movement which had been taking place for centuries to realize the principles of western civilization in the world. The adoption of these principles into the United Nations were seen by Hammarskjöld as the initial step toward an establishment of an international democracy of peoples, bringing all nations – irrespective of history, size, or wealth – together on an equal basis as partners in the vast venture of creating a true world economy."

  These objectives went beyond Hammarskjöld’s preference for them as a basis for human relationships, they were also a part of his philosophical outlook on life. The principle of preventing armed conflict through negotiations is related to attempts on the part of the organization to bring about the peaceful settlement of disputes that have not erupted in physical conflict. The principle of prohibiting the use of force except in the common interest concerns a number of forms of activities. They include the deterrence of conflicts through the interposition of UN personnel and the threat of sanctions against aggressors, the termination of conflicts through the initiation of sanctions or diplomatic pressures, and the reconstruction of situations which seriously threaten international peace. Hammarskjöld’s objectives deal mainly with the threats to peace, but the remaining three of equal opportunity, political equality, and the rule of law are directed at removing the underlying causes of conflict and at building a more peaceful world order. They were brought about to help eliminate the occurrence of international disputes and violence and the need for employing means of easing tensions, settling disputes, and controlling the use of force. There are three main meanings to these three principles; to promote greater equality in economic standards among people around the world, to secure a voice for all nations in international decision making in addition to protecting the political independence of all nations, and thirdly, to promote settlement of disputes and the creation of cooperative endeavors in accordance with legal procedures and substantive law.

Secretary General

  The Secretary General is described by the Charter as the "chief administrator" of the organization. Both diplomat and activist, he is much more than just that. He is the symbolic head of the United Nations. The Secretary General must have the beliefs that what is expressed in the Charter can be made reality and he must approach issues with optimism and tenacity. The Charter states that he has the right to bring any issue to the Security Council which he deems as a threat to international security and peace. He serves as both a servant for the members, and a spokesperson for the group as a whole. He has the ability to use "preventive diplomacy", which basically means preventing international disputes from spreading or escalating.

  Hammarskjöld viewed the post as Secretary General has a very certain initiative that is outlined in the Charter.

First Test

  In 1953, when Hammarskjöld first was appointed Secretary General, the United Nations was losing influence worldly. The two main reasons for its existence, namely to be a source of collective security, and to serve as a place for negotiation and conciliation were not being upheld. The Greater Powers were not looking towards the UN for aid in any conflicts any longer, and popular opinions felt that the UN was on its way out of the international scene. Hammarskjöld was placed in a difficult role, that of attempting to restore the organization. His first opportunity to do this came with the assignment of the situation in China. In 1954, he was asked by the Assembly what he could do to bring about the release of American airmen held prisoners by Red China.

  Eleven American airmen had been shot down during a Korean War mission. They were claimed by the Chinese as to violating Chinese air space. The US claimed it was in North Korean air space, yet they were tried as spies in the Peking regime. The Armistice agreement had obligated both sides to repatriate all prisoners of war, yet it was not being upheld. The US brought the issue to the General Assembly on December 4, 1953. The members of the organization felt that the detention of the airmen was a violation to the Armistice Agreement, and condemned the trial and conviction illegal. The Secretary General was left to decide the future of the airmen and the repercussions to be taken against the countries involved. No one believed that the Chinese would ever comply with the UN demands. Hammarskjöld’s only chance for success was to fly to Peking and meet with the Chinese Prime Minister himself. In order for them to listen to him, he had to distance himself form the condemnation and resolution. He brought it down to a more personal issue with Chou En-lai, the Chinese Prime Minister and that is what seemed to have set the agreement.

Suez

  In 1956, the Security Council considered a Syrian complaint that Israeli armed forces had attacked Syrian regular armed forces on Syrian territory. The members of the Council agreed that Syria had illegally interfered with the Israeli activity on the lake nearby yet that did not call for armed retaliation. The tensions rose and Hammarskjöld took a trip to the Middle East. He visited several capital cities in the region and returned back to New York. This trip had a very strong influence on the way the Secretary General was seen in the Middle East. He became respected and this trip proved to be vital to his dealings with the Suez crisis. He also gained knowledge of the area. The United Nations turned all power to one man as many do in times of crisis. The powers given to the Secretary General required great confidence on the part of the member states. The Suez crisis may have turned out different if this trust and confidence had not been set up ahead of time. This is a major reason why the visit to the region was so vitally important. The Suez crisis showed how great a diplomat Hammarskjöld really was and it is viewed as the turning point in his world posture as a civil servant to the world, devoted wholly towards peace. He served as the mediator between countries which never wished to even discuss any issues, to reduce tensions.

Congo

  The Belgian Congo became independent in 1960 and named itself the Republic of Congo. They were far from ready to be independent at the time, with an overwhelming population and disorganized government. The previous Belgian occupation had proved to be a positive one in most cases. They had built modern cities, developed many of the countries natural resources, and created one of the highest literacy rates in Africa. It was not all positive although. Belgian colonial philosophy believed that economic stability and well being should precede education. There was minimum contact with the outside world for the Congolese in an effort to isolate them from ideas of political freedom. Despite the independence from the Belgium, Belgian troops still remained unrightfully in the territory. UN troops were sent there to restore law and order and to replace the Belgian forces. The UN withdrew their troops after four years, which were the most dangerous years that the UN forces have dealt with. There remained chaos and oppression in the Congo, yet it had been suppressed to a certain degree. Hammarskjöld arrived in the Congo to attempt to settle the unrest that was occurring. He flew up to Northern Rhodesia to make a truce with Tshombe, who was the leader of the Katanga region in the Congo. Hammarskjöld flew at night without radio contact to ensure highest safety from the rebelling forces in the region. As the plane was approaching the landing site, it disappeared. The wreckage was found north of the airport in a forest. All passengers aboard died, including Dag Hammarskjöld. There have been several suspicions as to how the aircraft went down, yet now it is merely believed to be an accident.

Conclusion

  The crash of Hammarskjöld’s plane came as a shock to the world. Nobody had put themselves at so great a risk than him in order to promote world peace. He was the symbol of peace and hope to the average person. At the time of his death, he was one of the two or three best known leaders in the world. Richard Miller lists seven main reasons as to why this was the case.

• The great increase in member states

• Cold War tensions eased somewhat with the ending of the Korean War allowing Hammarskjöld greater scope and boldness of action than Lie (his predecessor from Norway)

• The magnitude and complexity of many problems tended to promote a “let Dag do it” attitude especially among the new nations and among many other understaffed delegates.

• The demand for fast action in many crisis can be best met by a single unit rather than a committee.

• The increasing number of small, neutral nations enhanced the role of Secretary General.

• Hammarskjöld was able to do something constructive and positive with his position. Four aspects of diplomacy were particularly emphasized by him, quiet diplomacy, impartiality, purposeful involvement, and pragmatic creativity.

  Hammarskjold was instrumental in raising the status of the United Nations in the eyes of people around the world. He implemented morale to the post of Secretary General and the staff. His example of international civil service set a personal role for others to follow. Hammarskjöld contributed to the development of procedures for international cooperation that have served to give the world organization greater permanence and more efficiency. Most in terms of diplomatic procedures, but some dealt with economic and social conditions around the world. The growth of different UN – related agencies was also encouraged by Hammarskjöld.

  His peace-keeping policies could be the determining factor as to why war did not break out in any of the countries with major conflicts at the time. He was able to keep minor disputes from erupting into major conflicts. His untiring efforts on behalf of peace were very useful in each instance and certainly made positive contributions toward easing the tensions around the world.

  His death is described by his former executive assistant, Andrew Cordier as:
  The closing of an era of unparalleled richness – in the charting of new paths in diplomacy,
  in combining rare gifts of energy, wisdom, and intelligence to bring crises under control and to
  promote programs for human betterment.