Theory W page 169 History
Chapter 2 - Educational administration
PhD study
College teaching
The young child
Continued worker learning
Review. Following the topic
delimitation of Appendix
A, we move from the industrial organization history of
Chapter 1 to the education organization history which
follows in this chapter.
Regardless of the entrance bias
into history, an
appreciation of organization theories should come out the
same - the goal being a comprehensive understanding.
Summary. Education, being
a personal experience,
provides massive amounts of divergent views. The challenge
of scholarship comes to be an adequate review of the
teaching literature with respect to organization, and
specifically functional organization. Phase 8 completes
the
list of organization theoories gleaned from historical
review. A separate analysis of propositional statements
will be taken up in Chapter 5.
Next. A short dialogue and
presentation of some of
the scholars of organization appears in chapter 3, then a
review of organization structures follows in chapter 4.
PhD study
The literature review here ties
with Bowling Green
State University's Higher Education Administration doctorate
Theory W page 170 History
program course 701 entitled Administrative Theory.
Administrative theories, which
umbrella functional
organization theory, can be seen from course teachings of a
PhD program for higher education administration. A
particular graduate course, entitled Administrative
Theories, provides insight into organization theories as
seen from the the education industry's point of view.
One particular PhD course investigates
50+ books, each
summarized in one page. The pages were shared and assembled
with overview comments. The chosen commentary on education
industry administrative theories began with one particular
quote.
Whatever your work, you can be
brilliant at it only if
you think about it, but having a PhD degree doesn't
prove
a person is capable of thinking at all, nor does
the lack
of a high-school education prevent you one tiny
bit from
thinking brilliantly. (51 49)
Thus thinking can be seen to be
irrespective of
educational degree, and functionally available to EVERY
worker. In a previous table, the organization theory of
"only individuals do work" can be restated as "only
individuals think and do work."
Thinking also flows beyond job-work.
Pondering
whatevers can be seen as artistic - in contrast with the
scientific approach, which can be seen as implying (1)
singularity of vision and (2) absolutes (50 28).
Thus Theory W can be seen as incorporating
a singular
Theory W page 171
History
vision and an absolute way, however a dynamic way, to
organizational vision attainment.
A vision and a way imply awareness.
Organization
awareness -
will definitely not adjust you
to society. It can
help you to adjust to yourself - help you to discover
your own reality...[within the functional organization]
Awareness leads to a continuing
ongoing enrichment and
involvement with your life. (EDAS578 3)
Ongoing enrichment and involvement
can be seen as
happiness. Taylor enabled happiness (36 25) (24 210).
Taylor was a dominant, if not the dominant, scholar of
administrative theory and functional organization - as
enumerated in the next chapter.
Thusly, individual choice - to
commit to each task in
a series of tasks leading to the organization's vision - can
provide individual worker happiness in an industrial, or
educational, or perhaps any setting.
The educational administrator's
responsibility can be
seen as the upliftment of teacher self-esteem so that they,
in turn, will do the same for their students (5).
Master teacher tasks. A significant
work, based on
Teacher Expectations, Student Achievement (TESA) mid-1960s
research, and attributed to S.Kerman, possibily appendixed
in the book Pygmalion in the Classroom by R.Rosenthal and
L.Jacobson (Holt 1968), was presented in 1985 to the
Directors' and Supervisors' Conference of the Ohio
Theory W page 172
History
Department of Vocational and Career Education (July 31), and
entitled TESA for Administration by B.Eich. Reworded in
functional organization language, the master teacher tasks
are -
Table 23 - Boss expectations, worker achievement
____________________________________________________________
A. Give response opportunities.
1. Provide equal calling.
2. Provide individual
help.
3. Give think time.
4. Do thought delving.
5. Ask higher questions.
B. Give boss feedback.
1. Affirm feeder's
position.
2. Praise thought
basis.
3. Validate praise
reasons.
4. Hear worker thoughts.
5. Accept worker feelings.
C. Regard personal
contribution.
1. Take near position.
2. Give courteous
respect.
3. Show timed interest.
4. Share equal touch.
5. Correct disrespect.
____________________________________________________________
Note: TESA development through the minds of Eich, Kerman,
Rosenthal and Jacobson, mid-1960s to 1985.
The structure can apply to any
organization and will
be further developed as a case study in a future chapter.
Administrative theory chronology.
A chronological
view of administrative theories comes out of the PhD course
entitled Administrative Theories -
Theory W page 173 History
Table 24 - Chronology of administrative theory
____________________________________________________________
Year Theory description and reference
____ ______________________________________________________
1795 Boulton & Watt foundry personnel mgt (1964 Urwick 172)
1817 Owen personnel management pays (1964 Urwick 187)
1833 child employee education act (1964 Urwick 178)
1903 ASME paper on functional vs military (1947 Taylor)
1909 ed.efficiency=training,attention,thinking,discernment
liberty,enthusiasm;character,expression,knowledge,
constructive imagination (Eliot)
1913 ed.begins to apply scientific mgt=determine product
standards,number progressive stages
(Bobbitt 11)
1914 "exclusion of...appreciation...lasting significance...
command of methods..without..teacher
(Strayer 241)
1915 [the call for more functional org] (Cubberley)
1916 committee endorsed people policies (1964 Urwick 187)
1916 '29 to G.B. '49 to U.S.
plan,org,command,coordinate,control
(1949 Fayol)
emphasize"prevoyance"=look ahead,coordinate,set
goals and standards (1950 Gulick
v.50 48)
1920-40 lessons forgotten and relearned (1964 Urwick 191)
1918,23 "teaching...inherently dynamic,inseparable from
the function
itself." (1940 Moehlman p.v)
"view...too narrowly from its
institutional aspect.
(p.31) (1924 Chapman) teaching=release.creative.
talents and orient.high-level.co-operation(p.53)
1920 jr.hi."an opportunity rather than an achievement."
(Briggs)
1920 greeks,jews,romans,christians,barbarians,Church was
not progress,rather assimilation
(Cubberley)
1923 analyze.education.jobs (Cubberley)
1925 116 case problems (Cubberley p.v)
1928 clear aim,careful plans,execution,results
evaluation,self-critique of work
versus just
experience (Sears p.ix)
medieval sin enforces rigidity
(Sears 22)
1900-30 ed.adm vs.bus.mgt practices (Callahan 1962)
1933 fatigue,monotomy=induced worker imbalance (Mayo)
Hawthorne=untouched human problems
1934 task science,worker education (Taylor)
1937 planning=knowing when,where,way to perform function
(Fayol in Sears 1950)
continued
____________________________________________________________
Table continued
Theory W page 174
____________________________________________________________
1937 task of coordination[of tasks] (Gulick 54)
specialists relatively authoritative
(Gulick 54)
1938 Barnard=authority conferred by subs on superiors
(Balderston 1974)
1939 worker view determines efficiency (Roethlisberger)
collaboration comes more from
non-formal structure,
personal satisfaction makes willing
cooperation
1940 "direct contact of the responsible people (Metcalf)
1940,42 developing theory (Clapp, Wengert)
1941 professional group rather than public typically
take initiative (Mort 311)
1941 leader demands goals to be reached (Reeder 25)
enter pupil judgement (p.234-46)
1942 coordination (Follett 23) definition of task
authority (p.147,9) genuine power
is capacity (109)
1942 mental & psychological conditions (1964 Urwick 171)
1945 rational human choice (Simon c.2) premises are the
smallest unit of analysis (c.4,5)
organization
boundaries are human members (c.6)
1945 investigation effects planning (Urwick) marketing
research statistics, discipline
& rule orientation
1946 application to public adm (1948 Gulick) clear
purpose statement,translation
to program,
coordination,planning,decentralization
1947+ new movement away from anecdotal instruction TO
theory or empirical research (Helpin
1970)
1948 org is "systematically coordinated interaction,
continuous in time,of 2 or + individuals."(Barnard)
1949 technical assimilation (Lawler)
1950-85 Jap.success=(1)technology (2)mgt.style
(3)worker support(Garzony
1981)
1950 assimilation and dilution (Sears)
constantly assist and encourage
responsibility
"natural to strive for what one
wants, equally
natural to avoid unnecessary effort
or effort
toward unwanted ends."
1951 for social reproduction public school=
operating agency of government
(Moehlman 61)
little org research despite scientific
move in
ed since 1912 (98) instruction=recessive
(149)
1952 integrate business & ed; teach leadership by
practical experience,coaching,supervision;
develop very young leaders (Urwick)
1952 Hawthorne human intellectual org (Urwick)
1953 government growth exceeds reasonable bounds (AMA)
continued
____________________________________________________________
Table continued
Theory W page 175
____________________________________________________________
1954-9 social SYSTEM(163 Halpin 1970) cited Getzels,
Guba,Halpin,Griffiths,Hemphill,Fredericksen,
Carlson,Croft
1955 case study develops thinking,sci method use=
locate problem,define basis,arrange
facts&skills,
alternate solutions,test,verify
(Sargent)
1956 constructive use of informal behavior (Griffiths)
1957 common sense problem solving (Mort)
1957 principles harder to identify in ed (Abbott p.vi)
ed.adm=ombudsman (5-6) ed goal=discover,teach
knowledge (25) individual=active
mechanism
habituated in fulfilling basic
needs(drives)(34-5)
more models of org (40) essential
permissiveness &
relaxed atmosphere for effetive
work (42)
1958 theory/model of formal org (March) propositions(6)
reinvention of historical fact
and premise (33)
1958 best practice recommendations (Hunt) losing touch
with principles
1959 theory of adm relative to formal org (Griffiths),
administration=(1)generalized
behavior in all org,
(2)directing & controlling
social life,(3)based on
developed & regulated choice,(4)works
with id's
with a group referrent(71-4)
1960 social science orientation (McGregor) theory x =
id's dislike work, (2)therefore
coercion, control,
micro-managed, threat, (3)direction
to avoid
responsibility, little ambition,
wants security
most (33-5) theory y = (1)work
is natural, (2)self-
direction to committed objectives(control),
(3)
commitment brings rewards, (4)learns
to accept and
seek responsibility, (5)most think
and create, (6)
capable of challenge(47-8), strategy
= (1)clarify
broad job requirements, (2)establish
limited time
targets, (3)manage target period,
(4)appraise
results(67)
1960 Taylor & Babbage referenced, sci.mgt= org.planning,
production, relations, costs,
sales (Villers)
1961 stratification theory vs.new pluralistic theory of
community power, relationship
of leaders to
constituents is ambiguous, situational
(Dahl)
1962 social behavior, causal explanation = clearly
intentional & meaningful by
the individuals(Weber)
1962 what steps provide excellent ed (Callahan)
Taylor, Spaulding & Bobbitt
referenced
1964 behavioral ed.adm (CASEA) adm.sci not yet placed
1964+ anticlimatic (167 Helpin 1970)
continued
____________________________________________________________
Table continued
Theory W page 176
____________________________________________________________
1965 econ,pol.sci,psy,soc.ties to sch.adm (Tope)
1966 theory dev in ed.adm,phil & sci principles,
implementation (Saunders)
1967 interpersonal competence & group development(De)
B havior = f unction (p erson)
(s ituation)
1967 open system to optimize functional dept interplay
(Lawrence)relevant external environ
for performance
1968 educators Conant,Dewey cited (Getzels)
(1)mgt.Taylor,Fayol,Gulick;(2)hum.rel.Follett,Mayo,
Rothlisberger,Lewin;(3)soc.serv.Barnard,Argyris,
Griffiths,Simon;normative &
personal dimensions
1968 organization cannot give nor impose (Foote)
human need satisfaction(14) cultivate
forms of
excellence(26) faculty senate
powerful but lacks
self-government(31)
1969 universal successful principles (Hersey)
organization=task output relationships(100)
cited Maslow hierarchy,Mayo,McGregor
theory X-Y,
Homans social system,Argyris (Im)maturity
theory,
Herzberg motivation-hygiene theory,Likert
mgt.sys.
task-relationship maturiation
curve
1970 cited McGregor theory y (Townsend)
1971 application of theory y to 3 org (Argyris)
1971 campus governance=intuition,irrational precedence,
hip responses(Hodfkinson)
1973 hi.ed.org=political,consensus,brotherhood,
conservative or compound sys(Helsabeck)
1973 ed.adm.role=strength,positiveness,endurance,
compassion,firmness,imagination(Knox)
1974 sys=arrangement forming a whole(4 Richman) open
sys=continually importing-transforming-exporting
=dynamic(5) cited Mauer,Kast,Rosenzweig
1974 theory in practice=action & allegiance(63 Argyris)
1974 TESA begins out of mid60s research(Eich 1985)
1975 mgt.substance=program budgeting,operations
research,mgt by objectives,sys.analysis(145
Corson)
university resources=people,space,time,books,
equipment,repute,money(185) worker
facts=expert,
intellectual(learning,inquiring,reasoning
minds),
professional self-direction(237-8)
1976 theory of rational choice(Simon) limit control span
to a low number(20-1)
1978 balances bureaucratic structure & existential
participation in spirit of theory
y(Hoy)
1978 leading from one point to another(Sayers)
continued
____________________________________________________________
Table continued
Theory W page 177
____________________________________________________________
1978 cited Barnard,Simon,Breneman(Balderston) university
mission=teaching,research,public
service(11) look
backward in the flow evaluates
relationships, look
forward to id goals,purposes(7-8)
activity & output
lead to goals(8) org.problems(1)responsibility
gaps
(2)cohesion & clarity of objectives
(3)ridigity(56)
1978 ed.org.different(Curtis)
1979 org.elements=(1)leading (2)expections (3)order (4)
basis skills (5)monitor worker
frequently(Edmonds)
cites Weber,NYstate,Madden,Brookover,Lezotle
1979 MBO systems approach=(1)define org.aim (2)define
org.environment (3)define resources
(4)spell out
activity components (5)chart mgt.method(9
Odiorne)
1980 cited Taylor,Maslow(McGregor)
1980 ed.service=national economic survival(Brooksbank)
1981 leadership=performance & people concern(ix Blake)
1982 org.theory not advancing for failure to treat org
as concrete,material(Pfeffer)
cited Galbraith
structural contingency theory
1982 technology changes faster than org.(Monahan)
1982 Jap.250day school year & entrance exams(Beauchamp)
1982 double-loop learning=question,possibly redefine
goals & situation(226 Argyris)
cited Torbert,Brief
1983 worker-based quality=where did WE go wrong?(Lee)
cites Ouchi,Shukla
1983 cites Ouchi(George) unifies workers around org
philosophy with open systems and
consultative WE
1985 TESA strands=give response opportunities,feedback
from boss,personal regard=excellent
teacher goals
cited Rosenthal,Jacobson,Kerman
(Lange)work=human value source
(1)humanize
philosophy (2)congrue values (3)rotate
jobs
(4)structure work (5)commune open
sys
(6)consultative choices (7)secure
personhood
____________________________________________________________
Note: W.York (1985) Administrative theories - EDAS 701.
Bowling Green OH: BG State University. PhD program in
Higher Education Administration.
Review of theories presented.
Based on the above
chronological review, the table of organization theories
increases substantially.
Theory W page 178 History
Table 25 - Organization theories - phase 5
___________________________________________________________
Theory
Effectiveness
______
_____________
authority of the aim
yes
strategy
yes/nob
treat organization as materialb
yes
organization = order of tasks then who assignmentb
yes
authority of administrator/teacher/coordinatorb
yes
leadership leads from one point to anotherb
yes
release.creative.talents orient.high.cooperationb
yes
orient product determination to peopleb
yes
worker orientation provides better outputb
yes
only individuals think and do workb
yes
action = theory in practiceb
yes
individuals choose self-direction = power/capacityb
yes
functional task division provides awarenessb
yes
individual responsible job critique brings rewardsb
yes
worker=expert,learner,self-directingb
yes
double-loop learning = question and rdefineb
yes
direct contact of responsible workersb
yes
appreciation, significance, command of methodsb
yes
control theory rests with individual intentionb
yes
correct.induced.imbalance=habituate.need.fulfillmentb
yes
line and staff(relatively authoritative)b
yes
universal org = task output relationshipsb
yes
structure is bureaucratic thus facilitate changeb
yes
response, feedback, regard opportunityb
yes
fore/back up/down why/way task i/o relationship flowb
yes
life-cycle leader theoryb
yes/no
span of control
when,where,way,web
assimilation brings dilutionb
intention vs commitment vs competenceb
open system dynamicsb
___________________________________________________________
Note: a Next phase appears later in this chapter.
b Theories added or modified
since phase 4.
Organization defined. In this
century, Barnard
receives credit for the "most famous definition of an
organization."(40 i) And "Barnard appears in virtually every
Theory W page 179
History
bibliography on organization."(4 vii) Barnard early on
asked, "What is an individual?"(4 8) He elaborates on - (1)
the individual's physical ability (4 10), (2) their "ability
to maintain an internal balance, and a continuity..."(4 10),
and (3) the need to work "in conjunction with other human
organisms."(4 11) The properties of an individual are (a)
activities, (b) psychology, (c) choice, and (d) purpose
(4 13-4). Following from the individual element, he defines
organization as a "specific cooperative system" of choices
based on purpose and alternatives (4 17).
In general, "organizations are
a social invention -
humans design them, run them, and work in them."(112 ix)
Continuing with Barnard's implications,
the
organizations of the individual supply a "memory" or
"conditioning."(4 38) Then, and only after the foregoing,
Barnard "imputed to the individual the restricted but
important capacity of choice."(4 38) He concludes that
"adaptation....makes...something more than mere response to
present conditions."(4 38)
Review of theories presented.
The importance of
Barnard's theory of organization warrants another phase
statement.
Theory W page 180 History
Table 26 - Organization theories - phase 6a
___________________________________________________________
Theory
Effectiveness
______
_____________
authority of the aim/purposeb
yes
strategy/psychologyb
yes
organization is workers & their task choicesb
yes
treat organization as material
yes
organization = order of tasks then who assignment
yes
authority of administrator/teacher/coordinator
yes
leadership leads from one point to another
yes
release.creative.talents orient.high.cooperation
yes
orient product determination to people
yes
worker orientation provides better output
yes
only individuals think and do work
yes
action = theory in practice
yes
individuals choose self-direction = power/capacity
yes
functional task division provides awareness
yes
individual responsible job critique brings rewards
yes
worker=expert,learner,self-directing
yes
double-loop learning = question and redefine
yes
direct contact of responsible workers
yes
appreciation, significance, command of methods
yes
control theory rests with individual intention
yes
correct.induced.imbalance=habituate.need.fulfillment yes
line and staff(relatively authoritative)
yes
universal org = task output relationships
yes
structure is bureaucratic thus facilitate change
yes
response, feedback, regard opportunity
yes
fore/back up/down why/way task i/o relationship flow yes
life-cycle leader theory
yes/no
span of control
when,where,way,we
assimilation brings dilution
intention vs commitment vs competence
open system dynamics
___________________________________________________________
Note: a Next phase appears later in this chapter.
b Theories added or modified
since phase 5.
Chasing complete theory. The search
of and for
organization theory expands into many corners and can give
the impression of complexity. Not being cornered and not
Theory W page 181
History
being overwhelmed35 by a system's apparent complexity are
substantial challenges for the self-motivated learner.
Barnard faced these challenges.
It is not easy to distinguish between
concepts which
Barnard invented and those which he reshaped, developed,
and extended in his ambition to construct a complete
theory. (4 xi)
As complete as Barnard's Theory
Was, Theory W goes
further. We now continue to review historical organization
theories.
Freedom versus order.
All forms of social organization
have two simultaneous
needs that are often at odds with each other:
freedom
and order. Freedom springs from intuition
and leads to
innovation. Order stems from intelligence
and provides
efficiency. Both are essential, but are they
compatible
with each other? (151 xi)
Theory W answers yes. Specifically
from the above
theories table, the administrator uses authority to develop,
with their individual workers, alternatives from which the
individuals can choose, all the time supporting the higher
authority of the organization aim.
Barnard summary. Barnard considered -
the important structural concepts...to
be the
individual, the cooperative system, the formal
organization, the complex formal organization, and
the
informal organization. (4 xii)
____________________
35 Whelm = 1.to cover, submerge,
or engulf, 2.to
crush, ruin, or destroy; to overwhelm or overpower.
J.L.McKechnie (1983) Webster's new universal unabridged
dictionary. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Theory W page 182
History
The psychological behaviorist
Barnard identified the
dynamic concepts of organization "as free will, cooperation,
communication, authority, the decisive process, and dynamic
equilibrium."(4 xii)
Theory W, being a structural approach,
continues with
the structural concepts as summarized by Barnard. But first
a note on differing views of history.
Education versus business.
Barnard brought his ideas into
form at the time when
reports from the Western Electric experiments were
coming
into conflict with the theories of scientific management
originating in the work of F.W.Taylor and in the
rationalistic theory of organization formulated
by Henri
Fayol. (4 x)
[They] were rediscovering human
motivation in the
Hawthorne Works... (4 x)
The above mentioned conflict,
real or not, should not
prevent the discovery of underlying theory. Interpretation
of fundamental theory can reconcile this and other literary
conflict.
"Pioneers like F.W.Taylor, Elton
Mayo, and Henri Fayol
began to apply science to management."(122 viii) We are
challenged to build on their work.
Now on to the structural concepts
of organization.
Individual worker.
Have you ever looked upon someone
as particularly
organized? And in life, of course, we observe the occurance
of a disorganized person - a particular person. Thus we
can
Theory W page 183
History
look personally at that organization which brings us to
personal aims. Combined personal actualizations are the
same actualizations which carry the multi-individual
organization (MIO) to its aim or mission.
I conclude that to organize any
MIO, the organizer
should first organize the individual as a organization.
Theory W views organization as
a human activity (task,
action, act) - a tool to achieve human needs. Those human
needs are existance, relatedness, and growth.
The lowest level subsystem of the
organization is the
individual human; subsystems of the human are not
considered subsystems of the organization.
(105 92)
Cooperative system.
Because individual human beings
are limited in
knowledge, foresight, skill, and time...organizations
are
useful instruments for the achievement of human
purpose;
and it is only because organized groups of human
beings
are limited in ability to agree on goals, to communicate,
and to cooperate that organizing becomes for them
a
problem. (119 170)27
From the above age, Theory W was
developed to address
cooperative work task knowledge and communication, and
foresight toward goals. The proposition of providing worker
visibility into goals, thus increasing productivity went
without saying. Management science engineers exemplified
Theory W progress. But those organization technicians nary
____________________
27 Originally in H.A.Simon (1957)
Models of man.
New York: Wiley. p.199.
Theory W page 184
History
scratched the interest of most formal organization
administrators.
Thus beginning in the 1960s Theory
W based on the
administrative function which posed to communicate
cooperative work task knowledge and foresight toward goals.
A preconception of Theory W was
that administrators
were interested in exposing the knowledge and foresight
process - some were, many were not. Thus in its fourth
decade of development, Theory W seeks to write for
administrators who are interested in promoting the
productivity of their organization by adding the functional
organization structure to the classic formal organization
theory.
Organization development field
theory (ODFT). A
social psychology term.
I have developed organizations
throughout my career
but not in the sense of the French and Bell use
of the
key words of Organization Development (OD).
I am outside
of the OD which "emerged from three basic sources:
(1)
the laboratory training movement, (2) the development
of
survey research and feedback methodology; and basic
to
both of these, (3) the writings, efforts, energy,
and
impetus of the late Kurt Lewin."(117 15)28
If laboratory training and survey
research feedback
constitute two main historical origins of organization
development, then certainly Kurt Lewin and his work
in
developing a field theory of social psychology must
also
be recognized. (117 18)
____________________
28 Specifically the period 1972-1983.
Theory W page 185
History
Also recognize that psychology
and the seemingly
applicable term Organizational Development, are not quite
aligned with the development of functional organization
principles here-to-fore described.
Formal organization.
Our central focus here is on formal
organization, but
formal organization, in turn, is but one branch
of a
broader concept of organization as any set of repeated
or
continuing interactions that produces some discernable
joint effect. This concept of organization includes
not
only the instances in which people consciously coordinate
their efforts to produce some joint outcome.
It also
encompasses joint effects that are unconscious outcomes
of interactions, outcomes that the interacting parties
may be quite unaware of (and perhaps would regret
if they
were aware of them). (105 352)
A formal organization
is itself a party that can
interact with other parties, be they individuals
or other
formal organizations. (105 18)
Only individuals act, organizations
do not - the
concept of agent is a matter of law and is not here
integrated with organization theory. Thus in functional
organization theory, with worker stands alone in
performance, yet supported by their organization(s).
If the actions of two or more parties
are consciously
coordinated toward a joint effort, the organization
is
formal. It is informal if the joint effort
is produced
without conscious coordination. (105 17)
In the above sense, the functional
structure is
formal, yet differentiates from the formal - thus there can
be two structures within the above said connotation.
Geographic location.
Theory W page 186 History
In the case of a large organization,
the location
diagram may look something like the familiar organization
chart and give the locations of branches, posts,
churches, stations, ships, aircraft or units; and
again
the names of the people who are stationed at each
place.
(210 6)
In the above, note the idea of
residency - the only
way you can be within the organization is to reside in the
physical place. Organization, in the search for growth
in
increased theory effectiveness (universality), can be
released from the only-the-physical-location (formal
organization) view, and can be seen from the informal
psychology view, and from the matrix (functional) view.
More on that later.
The...step is for A and B jointly
and consciously to
produce some output. This is the relationship
we call
formal organization... (105 193)
This portrays a move to explain
the functions within
the formal organization - those that must be there for any
organization to work. Both the formal and functional
organizations have their place in organization theory.
We can think about a formal organization
as an
impersonal entity that has no goals except those
consciously assigned to it. Decisions in an
organization
can thus be thought about as if its motives were
solely
objective, explicit, and consistent - and hence
rational.
Principles about decisions, then, can be lifted
from a
maze of amphorous complexity when we shift attention
from
decision making by an individual to decisions by
the
organization. That is why decision theory
must come from
economics, not from psychology or elsewhere in behavioral
science. For the good of both organization
theory and
decision theory, I discuss decisions mainly in connection
with formal organization. (105 106-7)
Theory W page 187
History
From the above can be seen that
decision theory and
the formal organization theory support functional
organization theory. Further -
No one plans those patterns, and
the parties do not
consciously coordinate their actions to produce
them, but
the patterns nevertheless happen - and that is the
essence of informal organization. (105 20)
Informal organization.
If an employee enjoys doing his
work, seeing the
system work smoothly, of having the feeling of being
needed, or if he lives in the happy glow of expecting
to
be promoted, he in effect receives these compensations
in
addition to his pay. Such factors increase...his
desire
to keep the job, decrease...the desire to withhold
effort, or do both. Either effect extends
his [intensity
of desire] to stay in the organization and thereby
decreases his bargaining power relative to that
of the
employer. Intense enjoyment of work may induce
someone
to do it virtually as a gift. (105 300-1)
The existing literature on organization
theory and
organization behavior gives substantial attention
to the
importance and inevitability of informal organization
within the formal and of making the informal work
with,
or at least not against, the formal. (105
353)
Those who do the work of the organization
are the
staff. The term here includes everyone from
routine
manual workers to top executives. (105 200)
A rational decision maker chooses
those alternatives
whose benefits equals or exceeds their cost.
To
translate this into an organization context, the
main
level of such a decision is whether the organization
should be formed in the first place. If so,
its
formation is followed by an indefinite succession
of
questions about ongoing operations. (105 199)
Theory W affords a frame for those
definite questions
and the respondent decisions about the interrelated tasks in
support of the-should of existence.
A formal organization is likely
to have numerous
controls of this sort. "Whenever so-and-so
happens, do
such-and-such." The implicit or explicit valuation
is,
Theory W page 188 History
"Whenever X occurs, the best response is likely to
be Y."
That valuation is made by the person who designs
and
instructs the input/output relation, not by the
person
who executes it. (105 96)
Thus there still exists a need
for another structural
view separate from the formal and informal. Theory W
provides a tool for the explicit documentation of the
functional organization design. But that does not say the
formal and informal theory need be discarded.
The more closely actual behaviors
conform to the
prescribed roles, the more an observer can learn
about
either one by studying the other. (105 247)
The study of formal organization
is the elaboration of
the consequences of the single binding decision.
(105 195)
Human ecology and demography deal
with clearly
informal processes, while other sociologists deal
very
explicitly with complex organization, which is basically
formal. (105 357)
Formal organization...has at least
one control
subsystem that (1) acts on behalf of the whole system
and
(2) has some capacity communicationally to instruct
and
transactionally to motivate its operating subsystems
to
behave as it, the control system, desires.
(105 183)
Capacity is displayed via the
formal and informal
views - macro-capacity and micro-capacity if you will.
The individual micro-capacity.
Selznick has emphasized that the
formal structure is
only one aspect of the actual social structure and
that
organizational members interact as whole persons
and not
merely in terms of the formal roles they occupy.
(5 35)29
____________________
29 Originally in P.Selznick (1948)
Foundations of
the theory of organization. Americal Sociological Review,
v.13,p.25-35.
Theory W page 189
History
We thus come to a more complex
appreciation of formal
organization.
Complex formal organization.
Herbert Simon conceives of administrative
organizations primarily as decision-making structures.
He
has characterized his own focus in the following passage:
What is a scientifically relevant
description of and
organization? It is a description that, so
far as
possible, designates for each person in the organization
what decisions that person makes, and the influence
to
which he is subject in making each of these decisions.
(5 36)30
Effective administration, according
to Simon, requires
rational decision-making; decisions are rational when they
select the best alternative for reaching a goal (5 37).
Almost all modern administrative
organizations (as
well as some ancient ones) are bureaucratically
organized. Weber enumerates the distinctive
characteristics of this type organization in the
following way:31 (1) Organization tasks are distributed
among the various positions as official duties.
Implied
is a clear-cut division of labor among positions
which
makes possible a high degree of specialization.
Specialization, in turn, promotes expertness among
the
staff, both directly and by enabling the organization
to
hire employees on the basis of their technical
qualifications. (5 32-3)
The formal organization links
individual positions,
____________________
30 See Simon op.cit., p.1-11, and
p.45-78, et
passim.
31 Weber's discussion of these
characteristics may
be found in H.H.Gerth & C.Wright Mills (trans.& eds.)
(1946)
Max Weber: Essays in sociology. New York: Oxford Press.
p.196-204, 329-336.
Theory W page 190
History
the informal organization represents the individual dynamic,
and the functional organization links individual tasks with
assigned workers. A single worker would likely have many
tasks in their job position description.
(2) The positions or offices are
organized into a
hierarchical authority structure.
(3) A formally established system
of rules and
regulations governs official decisions and actions.
(4) Officials are expected to
assume an impersonal
orientation in their contacts with clients and with
other
officials.
(5) Employment by the organization
constitutes a
career for officials. (5 32-3)
Although rules are necessary,
the dynamics of informal
organization and tasks are best left to worker definition
within the confines of the work task activity. The work
task activity flow can be seen as the functional structure
of organization. Computer data bases offer individual task
linking on a practical basis. Thus functional organization
can be seen as an organization of individuals ONLY through
the organization of work task activities.
If the accomplishment of an objective
requires
collective effort, men set up an organization designed
to
coordinate the activities of many persons and to
furnish
incentives for others to join them for this purpose.
(5 5)
Since the distinctive characteristic
of these
organizations is that they have been formally established
for the explicit purpose of achieving certain goals,
the
term formal-organizations is used to designate them.
(5 5)
Regardless of the time and effort
devoted by
management to designing a rational organization
chart and
elaborate procedure manuals, this official plan
can never
completely determine the conduct and social relations
of
the organization's members. (5 5)
Theory W page 191
History
But data bases of worker activities
does offer a
renewed practical approach to a functional organization
structure.
Synergism.
The conception of structure or
system implies that the
component units stand in some relation to one another
and, as the popular expression "The whole is greater
than
the sum of its parts" suggests, that the relations
between units add new elements to the situation.
(5 3)32
We have distinguished among decisions,
which select
the behaviors of an individual; interactions, which
involve mutually contingent but different decisions;
patterned successions of interaction, which constitute
informal organization; and agreement to abide by
the same
decision, which constitutes the basic social ingredient
of formal organization. (105 224)
The whole can be viewed as the
formal organization and
its associated output and profit. The parts can be viewed
as the worker tasks which support the formal organization's
mission. Those worker tasks then come full circle in
defining the work tasks of each formal job position.
The patterned successions of interactions
can be seen
as the informal organization AND the patterned successions
as the functional organization.
Organization direction is displayed
by the functional
____________________
32 For a discussion of some of
the issues raised by
this assertion, see E.Nagel (1955) On the statement "The
whole is more than the sum of its parts," in P.F.Lazarsfield
& M.Rosenberg (eds) The language of social research.
Glencoe IL: Free Press. p.519-527.
Theory W page 192
History
organization. Each employee chooses to support the initial
decision of organization mission. The patterned successions
can then be shown by the Theory W form of organization
structure. The informal structure is reserved for the
unpatterned dynamic group interaction which let all the
human variables of individual selves be synergistic. That
delimited informal organization is recognized and defined by
this work, but its elaboration is left for scientific
psychology.
In summary, the seminal scholars
of organization had a
feeling for that more correct development in organization,
even though they did not have a formulation.
Organization structure and organization chart.
Depending on the purpose and the
audience, the
structure may be described in words or by a tree
type of
organization chart, matrix, mathmatical formula,
or other
form. To illustrate, a simple listing of all
roles and
their descriptions would constitute a detailed
description of the organization's structure and
might be
an essential tool for determining whether all necessary
functions have been provided for. If the focus
is on
chain of command, however, a simple tree chart might
suffice, even if it omits most details. (105
234)
The omission of those most-details
shows that unified
theory does not conceptualize the functional visualization.
The functional perspective, however, is much needed from the
perspective of a complete theory. The absence of functional
structure can be linked to a low level of organization
cohesiveness.
Theory W page 193 History
Characteristic levels of high personnel
turnover in
American organization are a reflection of heavy
emphasis
on bargaining power in the bargain of affiliation
that
results, in part, from a distinct absence of familyism;
high levels of mobility, specialization, and competition;
and low levels of loyalty and commitment between
employers and staff - all of which reduce the stake
costs
of terminating affiliation to each side. (105
417)
Communications, transactions,
and their configurations
that constitute informal organization coordinate
people
with one another but toward the separate goals of
each.
Formal organization, by contrast, consciously coordinates
people toward the goal(s) of some supersystem.
(105 224)
Again, the transactions
and work-task configurations
are the functional organization. Theory W defines the
supersystem which encompasses the four key structures of any
organization.
Informal synergism. Synergism
stems from informal
organization. The authority of the formal organization
boss
certainly interferes with synergism. And wherever the
authority of the formal boss has hierarchy (matrix),
synergism lags. Thus synergism, not coming from formal
or
matrix organization, comes from the informal organization
which exist in spite of the formal structures.
Many empirical studies demonstrate
that friendship
patterns, unofficial exchange systems, and natural
leaders arise to modify the formal arrangements.
(5 35)33
The first quality circle.
The Quality Circle Program can
be viewed as the next
step in an evolutionary process from Taylor's scientific
management through Hawthorne's Experiments to behavioral
science's influence, always attempting to increase
organizational efficiency and effectiveness.
Quality
Circles, if implemented as a function of the organization
Theory W page 194 History
and its constraints, increases efficiency by eliminating
those processes within the organization that increase
costs. (130 92)
Today's quality circle.
A Quality Circle is a group of
four to ten people with
a common interest who meet regularly to participate
in
the solution of job-related problems and opportunities.
It is an ongoing group operating in the work
environment... applying formal data collection
and
analysis, and arriving at solutions that are presented
for acceptance and implementation... (85 9)
Bureaucracy vs synergism. Formal
organization without
functional structure can be seen as typically bureaucratic,
that is, without synergism - without dynamic renewal.
The best quality circle. The functional
group brought
together by work-task interrelationships, with exception
reporting to the formal structure, can be seen as the best
quality circle.
The social oversimplification.
Social relations involve, first,
patterns of social
interaction - the frequency and duration of the
contacts
between people, the tendency to initiate these contacts,
the direction of influence between persons, the
degree of
cooperation, and so forth. Second, social
relations
entail people's sentiments to one another, such
as
feelings of attraction, respect, and hostility.
The
differential distribution of social relations in
a group,
finally, defines its status structure. Each
member's
status in the group depends on his relations with
the
others - their sentiments toward and interaction
with
him. As a result, integrated members become
____________________
33 C.H.Page (1946) Bureaucracy's
other face. In
Social Forces, v.25 p.88-94, and R.H.Turner (1947) The Navy
disbursing officer as a bureaucrat. In Americal
Sociological Review, v.12 p.342-8.
Theory W page 195 History
differentiated from isolates, those who are widely
respected from those who are not highly regarded,
and
leaders from followers. (5 3)
If the actions of two or more
parties are consciously
coordinated toward a joint effort, the organization
is
formal. It is informal if the joint effort
is produced
without conscious coordination. (105 17)
Theory W replaces social-relations
with
work-task-relations, although the social-relations present
with all humans, dominates the informal organization
structure. Thus social-relations are informal, work-task
are functional, and the boss responsibilities are formal.
When any higher up in the formal
organization takes a
perceived direct interest in a worker an interesting
phenomenon happens - the Hawthorne Effect. Generalized,
this effect can be viewed as the informal organization.
People choose to work more productively in support of the
group's (organization's) purpose. The purpose of the group
concerns objectives recognized within the formal
organization. If the group creates its own purpose,
sometimes contrary to formal objectives, we have an informal
group - different than the informal organization.
Socialness needs aim authority.
An informal organization can neither
act as a unit nor
interact as a unit. (105 20)
Agreed - the informal group with
their floating
leadership (the boss many times unrecognizable) is isolated
from the other parts of the organization whole, yet
Theory W page 196
History
encompassed by the whole.
Yet, beneficial impromptu group
relations will exist,
especially when challenged by critical thinking in pursuit
of functional objectives and the organization mission.
For a social system to act-as-a-unit
really means that
an identifiable person (group) has the authority
to
commit the system to some course of action.
The
foregoing discussion concerns individuals and formal
organizations, each of which does have the capacity
to
act as a unit. (105 20)
Act-as-a-unit has a military war-machine
connotation -
a mechanism connotation. That connotation does not fit
a
people organization - people have choice, mechanisms do not
choose. The formal organization chart is a responsibility
reporting description for the organization.
The boss serves.
The first organized effort to expand
our understanding
of the human reactions of employees, which began
in 1927,
was necessarily crude, but the work progressively
took on
a research character as it advanced from one development
to another, each step pointing the way to the next.
(192 vii)34
Much experience has been had in
trying out and testing
the findings of this research in real work situations
and
it seems clear that the knowledge acquired has been
increasingly helpful in our efforts to create a
better
relationship between supervisors and workers, the
kind of
relationship which contributes naturally to the
proficiency and a high state of morale. (192
viii)
The call for aim authority.
How can humanity's capacity for
spontaneous
co-operation be restored? It is in this area
that
____________________
34 C.S.Stoll (1939) in preface
to (192).
Theory W page 197 History
leadership is most required, a leadership that has
nothing to do with political isms or eloquent speeches.
What is wanted is knowledge, a type of knowledge
that has
escaped us in two hundred years of prosperous
development. How to substitute human responsibility
for
futile strife and hatreds - this is one of the most
important researches of our time. (192 xiv)
The answer can be authority of
the aim - both for the
individual as an organization, and for multi-individual
organizations. The aim can go a long way in replacing the
social position of the worker.
The job and all the factors connected
with it, such as
the pay, the method of payment, working conditions,
and
privileges, together serve to define the social
position
of the worker. (192 543)35
Analysis led to the general conclusion
that the
informal organization...resulted primarily from
the
position of that group in the total company structure
and
its consequent relations with other groups within
the
company. (192 548)
The potential confusion between
the formal, informal,
and functional structures hopefully lessens.
Incorrect leader separation. The
informal
organization, taken alone, separates the individual from the
work of the organization.
Additionally, some literature
considers the
individual, and even two individuals interacting, to be
apart from the organization. This may be beneficial in
some
regards, but Theory W does not share that view. An example
____________________
35 See figure 48 excerpted from
the chapter Formal
vs Informal Organization (192 525-48).
Theory W page 198 History
follows -
The terms group and organization
will be used here to
refer only to aggregations which contain at least
two
classes of people, in general called the-leadership
and
the membership.... Since groups of only two
people have
characteristics all their own, it will be easier
if they
are not included in the discussion. (210 4)
To emphasize the differentiation
- Theory W considers
a leader just another position with a job description which
includes functions networked in support of the organization
aim. Thus there are no classes nor numerical classification
of group size.
And in the informal organization
sense, any worker,
through the process of choice to action, can be a leader
beneficial to the organization. Theory W recognizes
leadership but does not use that concept.
Treating groups rather than individuals
as independent
units of analysis permits making generalizations
about
the internal structure of work groups, but it ignores
the
interrelations of these groups in the larger industrial
organization. (5 12)
And that's what functional organization
emphasizes -
interrelations of the assigned task individuals. The
general aim of the organization being the progressive
accomplishment of work tasks.
Although the Theory W functional
structure links work
tasks, the individuals assigned are, in another sense,
linked and interrelated. However, those interrelationships
do not mimic the lines of the formal organization chart.
Theory W page 199
History
Functional structure holds the
key to unlocking the
individual's motivation to task-action by ordering and
following the emphasis of work-task organization.
Review of theories presented.
The differentiation of
three separate structures of organization theory brings
about another phase statement.
Theory W page 200 History
Table 27 - Organization theories - phase 7a
___________________________________________________________
Theory
Effectiveness
______
_____________
authority of the aim/purpose
yes
strategy/psychology of the individual systemb
yes
organization is workers & their choicesb
yes
only individuals (as systems) think and do workb
yes
treat organization as material & rationalb
yes
organization = order.tasks then assign.whob
yes
members act as whole personsb
yes
component units relate synergistically,contingentlyb yes
authority of administrator/teacher/coordinator
yes
leadership leads from one point to another
yes
release.creative.talents orient.high.cooperation
yes
orient product determination to people
yes
worker orientation provides better output
yes
action = theory in practice
yes
individuals choose self-direction = power/capacity
yes
functional task division provides awareness
yes
individual responsible job critique brings rewards
yes
worker=expert,learner,self-directing
yes
double-loop learning = question and redefine
yes
direct contact of responsible workers
yes
appreciation, significance, command of methods
yes
control theory rests with individual intention
yes
correct.induced.imbalance=habituate.need.fulfillment yes
line and staff(relatively authoritative)b
no
universal org = task output relationships
yes
structure is bureaucratic thus facilitate change
yes
response, feedback, regard opportunity
yes
fore/back up/down why/way task i/o relationship flow yes
parallel freedom & order = innovation & efficiencyb
yes
three structures of organizationb
yes
open system dynamics yet relative equilibriumb
yes
what,why,way,when are organization strengthsb
yes
when,where,way,we(collective effort, coordinated)b
yes
life-cycle leader theory
nob
span of control
nob
assimilation brings dilution
nob
intent,communicate,congrue,commit,co-op,competenceb
yes
organizational behavior developmentb
yes
___________________________________________________________
Note: a Next phase appears later in this chapter.
b Theories added or modified
since phase 6.
Theory W page 201
History
College teaching
Faculty generally. Once upon a
time, a project was
funded. The purpose was (is) to structure faculty work
information.
One of three publications that
are being developed
over a two year period... To aid institutions
in
conducting a Faculty Activity Analysis which can
be used
for internal management purposes as well as in support
of
the Cost-Finding Principles and Information Exchange
Procedures projects. (263 vii)
Knowledge of what activities workers
perform stands as
fundamental - regardless of program costing needs. What
workers do must be visible to the organization.
As the task force members collectively
considered
their charge, they agreed they should attempt to
develop
an instrument that not only would meet requirements
for
program costing but also would be useful in the
context
of a number of other important management functions.
The
position of the task force is that data pertaining
to
faculty activities, though useful and important
for
programing-costing purposes, have equal utility
for
long-range planning, budgeting, and program review
and
evaluation purposes. (263 3)
The four general purposes of a
Faculty Activity
Analysis: 1.COSTING: Faculty compensation
can be
distributed to institutional programs in accordance
with
the time faculty spent working in each program.
2.PLANNING and MANAGEMENT: An institution can study
the
impact of alternate assumptions . 3.INSTITUTIONAL
RESEARCH STUDIES: The faculty confirmation provides
a
data base for further studies on what faculty do
and how
their activities influence the outcomes of an
institution's programs. 4.EXTERNAL REPORTING:
A faculty
survey is a source of information for reporting
faculty
workloads and faculty information to various funding
sources. (263 4)
If the faculty member feels that
an activity consumed
very little time, that activity could be given a
% value
that was more commensurate with its value....The
use of
Theory W page 202 History
hours as the reporting unit because the concept of
effort
and quality of effort is very difficult to quantitate
and
is subject to widely different interpretations from
one
faculty to another. The use of hours is believed
to give
a more uniform unit of measure and additionally
it has a
broader range of application. (263 34)
In evaluating whether to sample
faculty, the critical
question is, "What proportion of the faculty must
be
sampled in order to obtain a confident estimate
of an
average A profile?" If the required sample
size is
20-25% of the total population, there is good reason
to
use a sampling technique. In this case fewer
faculty are
troubled with having to complete a survey instrument,
and
fewer forms are collected that must be processed
and
analyzed, resulting in an overall lower expenditure
of
effort. (263 54)
The institution needs to evaluate
the stability of the
A data over time. (263 63)
1.Are the collected data accurate
- that is, do the
data accurately reflect the actual distribution
of
faculty to the activities? 2.Are the collected
data
consistent - that is, are the results the same when
the
data are collected under similar circumstances with
a
similar instrument? 3.What mechanism of collecting
the A
data will deliver the required amount of accuracy
and
consistency with the least cost and the least faculty
resistance? (263 74)
In developing an A analysis survey
instrument, the
starting assumption was that A data could be collected
with the necessary amount of accuracy and consistency
using a questionnaire-styled instrument. (263
79)
The factors that seem to influence
faculty reaction
are: 1.The degree of faculty self-governance has
to do
with how easily faculty can ignore administrative
requests. If the faculty are a strong governing
force
within the institution, they must be convinced that
the
survey is beneficial for the faculty before they
will
complete the instrument. If, on the other
hand, the
institution's governance is more autocratic, an
administrative request is taken much more seriously.
2.If an institution routinely collects A data, the
resistance of faculty tends to lessen. Faculty
become
accustomed to completing the survey instrument,
and if
they discover that no serious consequences directly
Theory W page 203 History
result from the collected information, they are less
concerned about possible misuse of the data.
3.The
amount of departmental interest in using the collected
information for departmental planning. 4.If
the faculty
are aware that a central governing council for higher
ed
is requiring activity information, they will more
willingly supply the information than if they believe
the
request is coming from the institution's administration.
(263 90-1)
Florissant Valley Community College
had never
conducted an activity survey, faculty are largely
self-governed and could see little benefit to the
faculty
resulting from an activity survey. The faculty
were
encouraged by the administration via reminder letters
and
telephone calls to complete the survey, but only
40% of
the 158 faculty members returned a completed survey.
(263 93)
University of CA, San Diego Faculty
are unaccustomed
to completing such instruments. Three methods
were used.
An interview was conducted with 40 faculty...
About 20%
of the faculty initially contacted declined to
participate; the remaining faculty were sequentially
invited to participate in a group-administered survey
until 12 faculty had accepted. Those faculty
who
participated in neither the interview nor group-
administered surveys were then sent a copy of the
instrument and asked to complete it. Of these
faculty,
18% responded. There were no follow-up reminders
urging
completion. (263 94+)
While the National Center for Higher
Education
Management Systems (NCHEMS) is confident that its
products will represent significant steps forward
in the
improvement of information exchange procedures (IEP),
it
is concerned that care should be taken that such
procedures are not prematurely or indiscriminately
applied across the full spectrum of higher education.
(274 v)
The purpose of the IEP project
is to create among
higher ed institutions the capability for exchanging
and
reporting that information, both financial and otherwise,
necessary to calculate and evaluate costs (1) by
discipline and course level and (2) by student level.
(274 vii)
Theory W page 204 History
Broad considerations...1.Comparisons
must be pursued
to the point of understanding why any identified
differences occur.) Considerable caution must be
employed
in making comparisons among institutions or programs.
Comparative data should include a number of institutional
descriptors in order to distinguish existing programmatic
and institutional differences. 2.Accountability
requirements for comparable information should not
lead
to standardized performance values for higher ed.)
One
strength of higher ed in the U.S. is its diversity
of
programs, funding, and accessibility. A loss
of this
diversity could result in a more homogeneous and
uniform
higher ed system incapable of innovation, free inquiry,
or response to the changing needs of society.
IE,
therefore, should not foster standards that impose
conformity and limited flexibility, and bench mark
data
should not be interpreted as operational standards.
3.The lack of comprehensive, reliable outcome indicators
carries with it serious limitations.) The current
procedures include a limited list of outcome measures,
most of which have been tested extensively.
Despite this
current absence of comprehensive, tested outcome
measures, the benefit or outcome side of the cost/benefit
equation must not be neglected. 4.Exchanging
comparable
information has significant implications for
relationships between institutions and their funders.)
The availability of accurate and comparable information
should provide the basis for more reasoned discussion
and
evaluation of institutional and other agency
responsibilities in a coordinated planning and management
effort. Moreover, the exchange methodology
should be
regarded as a two-way thoroughfare, with appropriate
feedback mechanism for both suppliers and users
of the
information. 5.Information exchange and reporting
procedures must accentuate the fact that responsibilities
accrue to all parties concerned.) Just as institutions
must be held accountable, those who hold them accountable
must define the areas of accountability. Accountability
must apply to all) in higher ed who are concerned
with
acquiring, allocating, or using resources.
(274 5-6)
Limitations to data interpretation:
1.Geographic,
cultural, environmental, and economic conditions
all
affect the operation of an institution and the nature
of
the programs and activities it provides. 2.The
age of a
program or activity can account for comparable
differences since start-up costs typically are higher
than those of established ongoing programs and
activities. 3.The mission, role, and scope
of compared
Theory W page 205 History
institutions may not be obvious, but they express
themselves in different operational styles and program
offerings. 4.The joint product issue is of
great
importance in the context of comparison. A
given
activity may result in more than one kind of outcome.
That such joint products exist is not in question;
how to
reflect them in the IEP is another matter.
Essentially,
the current set of procedures treats the activities)
of
the institution, but the state of the art is such
that
the procedures do not permit through investigation
of the
outcomes) of those activities. One should
be aware,
however, that changes in some activities may have
unexpected detrimental effects on outcomes that
one
prefers to leave untouched. 5.Scale of operation
may
account for differences. Perhaps economies
of scale are
reflected in activities of larger institutions but
not in
activities of smaller institutions. 6.The
efficiency and
effectiveness of the teaching, research, and
administrative functions, though not quantifible,
certainly produce differences. (274 7+)
Specific courses.
MANAGEMENT 301 - Personnel Management
Management
Development Today - Class Lesson for Dessler's Chapter 8.
The Concordian of September 25th
featured some
thoughts which ended, "We're born to be social beings.
We
might as well run the classroom the same way." And the
same
applies to business and other institutions and
organizations. To places where two or more gather, whether
for togetherness, culture or congruence.
Develop managers (p.257).
Managers develop themselves
and other selves. I did not think it unusual when I met
a
past plant manager who wrote a book on vacuum tubes. He
had
a degree in Economics. Now he is the head of the Galvin
Center which is Motorola's in-house college. I don't think
Theory W page 206
History
he has any advanced degrees. You might readily agree that
this person is a teacher. And once you accept the teaching
function outside of the traditional classroom you will see
that most people are teachers. All of us are developers
(teachers) of minds. We think ALL of the time.
In class I have stressed through
the notebook, the
learn learning process. This is a fundamental thought
discipline. It works just as your mind works. Your
mind is
the expert to the point where some argue that your mind
structures its own reality. A milder term is perception
or
awareness of our place in the world.
Every manager, as a teacher, developer,
and coach, has
learned to learn. Perhaps not formally, but none-the-less,
the manager is usually a good learner. My infamous concise
verb-noun style continues.
Develop management employees. How? (p.258-263)
Project formal organization.
Inventory management skills.
Project replacements.
Rotate jobs.
Enroll inside and outside programs.
Coach employees.
Import knowledge.
Change attitudes
Increase skill.
Why?
Facilitate organizational goals.
Provide productive organization.
Provide leadership continuity,
(togetherness, congruence,
culture, creativity.)
Reward employees.
Theory W page 207
History
A development need is, in a sense,
a performance
evaluation deficiency. In the main performance evaluation
can be viewed as behavior modeling. Two ways of evaluating
performance are to either grade yes-no or calculate a
percentage efficiency number. In my personal management
perspective, I am working to better present my data base job
description. These data base tasks will present parallel
insight into the jobs, tasks and relationships that each
student has chosen to analyze. This approach is the case
study method and we will develop into the role playing
method where we change your job and play that new role.
And
there is a chance, however very low, that we can start to
view a management game approach to the faculty job
description presented. (p.263-5,270-2)
Are you people-oriented or task-oriented
(p.274)? The
trap presented here is that one chooses one or the other.
Another choice is BOTH!! People are complex beyond any
stereotype, model or prediction. People can choose to
change. IF a person will change is not the issue.
The
issue is WHEN and WHAT motivates that particular person and
at that particular time to change.
At which of the five degrees of
participative
leadership are you (p.275)? Using the above rhetoric, a
sixth choice is, "I am at ALL degrees of participative
leadership at different times." People are able to change
Theory W page 208
History
to other degrees if they are aware. A goal of participation
is awareness. And the goal of science is to differentiate
and classify so that we are aware of alternate choices.
What are your quality standards
at this time (p.277)?
I submit three levels around which to base further questions
and answers about quality. Level one is respect for those
involved in the situation at hand. Level two involves the
time required by the situation balanced with the time that
is seemingly available. The word "seemingly" is important
since what one person would judge as a deadline, another
person could creatively redefine that seemingly tight time
requirement into a more free situation. Picture the leader
who never seems to hurried, who seemingly has time for
everyone, yet is assertive in the control of time. And
the
third level is the small but important step of challenge.
That extra encouragement toward a better quality work life
(or just plain life in general).
The Vroom-Yetton yes-no answering
methodology ties to
the yes-no data base job description performance evaluation
methodology. The Theory W question and answer methodology
practices looking at a person's choices in a series of
linked steps in order to achieve insight into goal
congruence. The performance of many steps can simply be
described as yes or no. (This is different than a pass-fail
pronouncement. The psychology of pass-fail is potentially
Theory W page 209
History
harmful to specific people and to our society.)
Questions are inherent in the
learn learning process.
In the "A" notebook option the expert student identifies the
issues. The questions they might repeatedly ask are "Is
this an issue?" and the age old two-year-old question,
"Why?" Notice the Transactional Analysis use of why and
what (p.275). Theory W expands the use of these W-question
words. "Will?" is not indicative of the application
of
personal drive, but is simply reflective of a [wise] choice
to act. The action is likened to an experiment where our
performance is removed from our self. Only after the action
should our self evaluate. Our societal problem is that
our
self fears. And fear impedes [wise] choice and action.
We
are again back to the philosophy of people (self)
management. What is your people management philosophy?
It
should be writeable now in several sentences.
Optimum organizations and productivity
are adult-adult
helping relationships. For scientific differentation we
use
the terminology (p.275-279) of parent, child, stimulus,
response, and leadership degrees I through V, etc. But
for
practical application the Theory W word of worth is put
forth. Is this thing or issue or whatever worth the effort
(action time)?
Increased interpersonal sensitivity
(p.280) is an
individual program. Theory W stresses increased
Theory W page 210
History
interpersonal awareness. Almost the same words but
significantly different. Inter means inner. Intra
means
between two people. And awareness is the 'listening' and
watching half of communication. The other half is talking
and challenging self and the others.
The fundamentals of the French
and Bell team building
(p.284) are:
Elicit problem
definition.
Elicit functional
definition.
Elicit obstacle
definition.
The Theory W approach within the
normal routine
organizational process is:
Accomplishments
to secure worth.
Concern definition
to allay worry.
Future definition
to show the way.
This way embraces the Blake and
Mouton development of
teamwork actionsteps. Not that work steps must be
accomplished by teams, rather that work is accomplished by
individuals who relate to others in an organized way. Past
literature refers to this work organization as the informal
organization. Dessler uses process chart to describe the
definition of organized work.
Theory W sees the process description
as the same
tasks that are contained in the real job descriptions.
Thus
the organized task data base can be sorted two ways:
by person - who
does work, and
by process -
the way work is accomplished.
Theory W page 211 History
This is the essence of all organizations.
whence (how)
work is accomplished, and
why work is
accomplished.
The young child
The easy learning of youth.
A living language is learned by
speaking and does not
need a teacher to verify and grade each sentence.
A dead
language requires constant feedback from a teacher.
(181 52)
Yet the real-world living-language
has feedback from
teachers. In short, wherever an individual learns, there
are also teachers, even though their job title does not
indicate them as teacher.
A living-language, that is, a
dynamic system, hardly
has a definable mission statement - as if the conscious work
was being done for an unconscious reason (why). However,
the individual has very good reason for the conscious work -
understood but not narrated.
Improvement facilitation. Teachers
can be seen as
improvement facilitators - they seemingly enhance freedom.
Yet the learner accepts responsibility and thereby,
seemingly, has less freedom. The learner seeks scholarship,
with educational degrees sometimes the credit. Job
performance and promotion can be another credit. A sequence
of growth oriented jobs can be another credit.
Then there exists a higher purpose
for
scholarship -
the good feeling of just plain learning - the basic human
Theory W page 212
History
need of growth if you will. The criticism against learning
asks, "For what?" Or in more simple two-year-old learning
terms, "Why?" Improvement facilitators must be there to
answer those questions - Theory W being a structural tool of
functional organization.
On an emotional level, learning
brings joy in the
context of a greater broad-based organizational whole.
Performance and personal empowerment follows.
Continued worker learning
First from a simple view, then
from a more complex
version.
Single-loop learning. The thermostat
controls
temperature. That control process knows the standard
temperature, knows the actual temperature, compares the two,
judges if the difference meets other criteria, then triggers
action to raise or lower the actual temperature.
Now transfer the thermostat example
to the individual
as a learner. Individuals learn standards. They measure
actual. They compare actual against standard. They
take
action. Yet some do not know why they are controlling the
temperature, thus, according to the Theory W hypothesises,
some administrators miss added work motivation - double-loop
learning supports the Theory W view.
From single to double-loop.
Theory W page 213 History
Individuals...who achieve their
intentions...without
reexamining their underlying values may be said
to be
single-loop learning. They are acting like
a thermostat
that corrects error without questioning its program.
If
the thermostat did question its setting or why it
should
be measuring heat at all, that would require reexamining
the underlying program. This is called double-loop
learning. (106 xi-xii)
Double-loop and Theory W. Double-loop
learning simply
represents the why question. And Theory W sees the why
question as the crux of an organization. From the above,
the why question can be seen as double-loop learning.
Instead of a thermostat, we are discussing the individual as
the organization. And since Theory W seeks to apply
universally to both the individual as an organization and a
group of multiple-individuals as an organization, the "why"
form of double-loop learning should apply to both
organizations.
Double-loop learning errors.
The second type of learning is
double-loop. Here the
error is diagnosed as incompatibility of governing
values
or as incongruity between organizational espoused
theory
and theory-in-use. Correction of such error
requires the
conditions of the good dialectic, which begins with
the
development of a map that provides a different
perspective on the problem. The opposition
of ideas and
persons then makes it possible to invent responses
that
approximate the organization's espoused theory.
Next,
the inventions are produced and evaluated.
If the error
is corrected, and hence the response is appropriate,
the
learning cycle ends. If the response is a
mismatch,
there is further inquiry.
Such a learning process should
decrease dysfunctional
group dynamics because the competitive win/lose,
low-trust, low-risk-taking processes are replaced
by
cooperative, inquiry-oriented, high-trust, and
risk-taking dynamics. Finally, dysfunctional
norms and
Theory W page 214 History
games of deception should decrease, as well as the
need
for camouflage, camouflage of the camouflage, and
defensive activities.
The results should be that participants
will
experience that double-loop learning is possible
for
themselves and their organizations, that organizations
can change, and that double binds experienced by
individuals can decrease. Hence we have a
learning
system that is simultaneously stable and subject
to
continual change. (106 104,6)
Organized learning map. From the
above we see that
the error between standard and actual "begins with the
development of a map that provides...perspective." The
common perspective of map focuses the attention in a spirit
of natural life-long learning. Nature creativity takes
place in the form of opposition-of-ideas and
invented-responses which support
the-organization's-espoused-theory. In Theory W, the why
of
organization existence represents the organization's theory.
And Theory W quantifies a specific type of map.
In an individual organization
the opposition of ideas
can be alternatives, past or future. In multiple-individual
organization's, the individuals themselves offer a richness
of good ideas about the way to better achieve the why of the
organization. Under Theory W, the invented responses take
the form of job descriptions. Job descriptions are the
way
in which the organization achieves the why.
Why-way double-loop.
What can the designers of learning
environments do to
facilitate double-loop learning?
Theory W page 215 History
1.Create conditions such that the data from which learning
is to occur are at the first and second rungs of
the
ladder of inference....
2.Use instruments that permit learners to design and
produce relatively observable data (rung 1) and
the
culturally accepted meanings embedded in these data
(rung 2)....
3.The interventionist should surface inconsistencies or
incongruities step by step....
4.Communicate a respect for defensive reactions whenever
they occur....
5.Expect emotionality, beginning with bewilderment and
frustration and leading to vulnerability, anger,
and
fear....
6.Empathize with the emotionality, but do not let it become
an excuse for backing off....
7.Candor and openness are not the ultimate purposes of
learning. They are conditions that enable
people to
reflect on the reasoning behind their actions and
to
design and execute mini-experiments so that they
can test
old action strategies and create new ones....
8.The interventionist provides appropriate theoretical
concepts to help people make sense of their present
actions and to design and implement new ones....
9.Create opportunities to design models for action....
10.The interventionist must be prepared to use his or her
actions as a model as well as to have such actions
confronted and questioned.... (106 165-73).
Worker data. Individuals track
and show their time
for the purpose of vested interest. The forms of time
tracking are different as exemplified in another section of
this dissertation.
Inconsistencies from model. Individual
timekeeping
focuses on the job tasks. The job tasks vary depending
upon
the organization served. The individual as an organization
uses different job tasks then the individual performs for,
let's say, organization A. And organization B may require
the performance of different tasks. For example, the
Theory W page 216
History
individual performs existence tasks for its self, then
different tasks for a business corporation, and still
different tasks for a civic organization.
Let workers experiment. All workers
know how to
experiment from childhood. Encourage experimentation within
the context of organization improvement which also accrues
to the individual worker.
Only workers learn. This applies
to double-loop
learning, that creative kind which humans enjoy and through
which they prosper. Thus systems, no matter how large,
or
smartly complex, cannot be double-loop. Only individuals
question why. That means super-systems made up of systems,
or systems made up of sub-system are not double-loop.
System complexity still does not rival an individual
learner.
Piagetian learning. Theory W,
in questing for
universality, seeks application not only to business and
education cases and the individual as an organization, but
also seeks connection to natural learning.
Out of the crucible of computational
concepts and
metaphors, of predicted widespread computer power
and of
actual experiments with children, the idea of Piagetian
learning has emerged as an important organizing
principle. Translated into practical terms
the idea sets
a research agenda concerned with creating conditions
for
children to explore naturally, domains of knowledge
that
have previously required didactic teaching; that
is,
arranging for the children to be in contact with
the
material - physical or abstract - they can use Piagetian
learning. The presence of paired things in
our society
Theory W page 217 History
is a example of naturally occuring Piagetian material.
(181 187)
They have to learn to have trouble
with learning in
general and mathmatics in particular. From
a lover of
mathmatics and of learning to a person fearful of
both.
One of the more subtle consequences of Piaget's
discoveries is the revelation that adults fail to
appreciate the extent and the nature of what children
are
learning, because knowledge structures we take for
granted have rendered much of that learning invisible.
(181 40)
Constructing a pathway for learning
Theory W. Theory
W not only seeks a connection to natural learning, but also
uses the knowledge associated with natural learning.
A number of principles have given
more structure to
the concept of an appropriable [learning pathway].
First, there was the continuity principle :The [pathway]
must be continuous with well-established personal
knowledge from which it can inherit a sense of warmth
and
value as well as cognitive competence. Then
there was
the power principle :It must empower the learner
to
perform personally meaningful projects that could
not be
done without it. Finally there was a principle
of
cultural resonance: The topic must make sense in
terms of
a larger social context. (181 54)
In short, Theory W as a natural
learning project, will
(1) reference the familiar - the living of life, (2) aim for
performance power, and (3) for a contribution to a larger
aim. First Theory W references the familiar life variable
of time.
Living the familiar.
A living language is learned by
speaking and does not
need a teacher to verify and grade each sentence.
A dead
language requires constant feedback from a teacher.
(181 52)
Time should be familiar to everyone
yet the scientific
Theory W page 218
History
measurement of life time exists outside a job context only
in a measurement unit of years. Now look at math and
grammar.
It is easy to understand why math
and grammar fail to
make sense to children when they fail to make sense
to
everyone around them and why helping children to
make
sense of them requires more than a teacher making
the
right speech or putting the right diagram on the
board.
[Not making sense] erodes children's confidence
in the
adult world and the process of education.
And I think it
introduces a deep element of dishonesty into the
educational relationship. (181 50)
Thus in order to teach Theory
W, it needs to be
spoken, it needs to make honest sense - it needs to show
why.
Learning as a two-year-old.
Children begin their lives as eager
and competent
learners. (181 40)
Children seem to be innately gifted
learners,
acquiring long before they go to school a vast quantity
of knowledge by a process I call Piagetian learning,
or
learning without being taught. For example,
children
learn to speak, learn the intuitive geometry needed
to
get around in space, and learn enough of logic and
rhetorics to get around parents - all this without
being
taught.
We must ask why some learning
takes place so early and
spontaneously while some is delayed many years or
does
not happen at all without deliberately imposed formal
instruction. In many cases where Piaget would
explain
the development of a particular concept by its greater
complexity or formality, I see the critical factor
as the
relative poverty of the culture in those materials
that
would make the concept simple and concrete.
(181 7)
Thirteen-year-old learns why.
[In] a year-long study that put
powerful computers in
the classrooms of a group of average seventh graders,
one
of the students, a thirteen-year-old named Jenny,
had
Theory W page 219 History
deeply touched the project's staff by asking on the
first
day of her computer work, "Why were we chosen for
this?
We're not the brains." The study had deliberately
chosen
children of average school performance. One
day Jenny
came in very excited. She had made a discovery.
"Now I
know why we have nouns and verbs," she said.
For many
years in school Jenny had been drilled in grammatical
categories. She had never understood the differences
between nouns and verbs and adverbs. But now
it was
apparent that her difficulty with grammar was not
due to
on inability to work with logical categories.
It was
something else. She had simply seen no purpose
in the
enterprise. She had not been able to make
any sense of
what grammar was about in the sense of what it might
be
for . And when she had asked what it was for,
the
explanations that her teachers gave seemed manifestly
dishonest. (181 48-9)
The case could be made that Jenny
was introduced to a
liberal arts education.
The point of getting a liberal
arts education...is to
get some sense of the sorts of questions that have
animated and continue to animate the human mind,
as well
as a small assortment of facts and information that
bear
on those questions -- and to participate at some
level in
the process of trying to answer those questions
as well
as discover new ones. (256 1)
Universal learning success.
[Piagetian learning] is effective
(all children get
there), it is inexpensive (it seems to require no
teacher
nor curriculum development), and it is humane (the
children seem to do it in a carefree spirit without
explicit external rewards and punishment).
[A] significant portion of the
population has almost
comlpetely given up on learning. These people
seldom, if
ever, engage in deliberate learning and see themselves
as
neither competent at it or likely to enjoy it.
Many more
people have not completely given up on learning
but are
still severely hampered by entrenched negative beliefs
about their capacities. (181 42)
The why question of Theory W appreciates
the way a
two-year-old and thirteen-year-old learns - the way an adult
Theory W page 220
History
of any age may learn. Simply ask the why question.
Wholeness as the why. Wholeness
of Theory W
represents the individual's set of good feelings. And any
organization has the generic purpose of becoming whole.
Toward that end some organizations are short-lived, while
others live relatively longer by replacing workers in the
organization's structure. Thus the organized work of this
dissertation has a wholeness purpose. Part 4 presents the
pure functional organization of this dissertation among
several other case studies.
Another natural learning material
is the question.
The natural action of the child as the curious explorer
turns to the associated verbalization "Why." Children seem
to have unlimited energy for exploration. The leader peaks
that curiosity. For a child-like employee in a new or
renewed organization there is curiosity. A given.
The
leader providing information is not a given but should be.
Children are not initially beholding to their leaders, but
naturally explore on their own. Thus pairing is an initial
prerequisite and the individual's action linked to another's
action, the result. The synergism being the aim of the
organization.
Synergism is not to be confused
with control - an
organization concept. The individual as organization says
yes to actions, chooses objectives. and aims at freedom
Theory W page 221
History
(not simply a reduction of fear).
Review of theories presented.
The theory that faculty
work subjects itself to functional organization and costing
presents some very challenging application possibilities -
however improbable.36
Finally, Piagetian learning provides
insight for
teachers in the universal sense.
Table 28 - Organization theories - phase 8a
___________________________________________________________
Theory
Effectiveness
______
_____________
authority of the aim/purpose
yes
strategy/psychology of the individual system
yes
organization is workers & their choices
yes
only individuals (as systems) think and do work
yes
treat organization as material & rational
yes
organization = order.tasks then assign.who
yes
members act as whole persons
yes
component units relate synergistically,contingently
yes
authority of administrator/teacher/coordinator
yes
leadership leads from one point to another
yes
release.creative.talents orient.high.cooperation
yes
orient product determination to people
yes
worker orientation provides better output
yes
action = theory in practice
yes
individuals choose self-direction = power/capacity
yes
functional task division provides awareness
yes
individual responsible job critique brings rewards
yes
worker=expert,learner,self-directing
yes
double-loop learning = question and redefine
yes
direct contact of responsible workers
yes
appreciation, significance, command of methods
yes
control theory rests with individual intention
yes
correct.induced.imbalance=habituate.need.fulfillment yes
line and staff(relatively authoritative)
no
universal org = task output relationships
yes
structure is bureaucratic thus facilitate change
yes
response, feedback, regard opportunity
yes
continued
____________________________________________________________
Table continued
Theory W page 222
____________________________________________________________
fore/back up/down why/way task i/o relationship flow yes
parallel freedom & order = innovation & efficiency
yes
three structures of organization
yes
open system dynamics yet relative equilibrium
yes
what,why,way,when are organization strengths
yes
when,where,way,we(collective effort, coordinated)
yes
life-cycle leader theory
no
span of control
no
assimilation brings dilution
no
intent,communicate,congrue,commit,co-op,competence
yes
organizational behavior development
yes
faculty can be costed workersb
yes
teachers get out of the learner's way(challenge)b
yes
the teacher responsibility is everywhereb
yes
___________________________________________________________
Note: a This is the final phase of historical review.
b Theories added or modified
since phase 7.
____________________
36 Faculty, including the teachers
of a PhD program
in Higher Education Administration, are notorious for not
subjecting their minds to being timed.
