The First Bulgarian Empire (681 - 1018)

Ancient Roman provinces Thrace and Moesia, which modern Bulgaria occupies, were settled (6th cent. A.D.) by Slavic tribes. In 679-80, Bulgarian people from the banks of the Volga, headed by Khan Asparuhk, crossed the Danube and settled permanently in the territory of Bulgaria. Bulgarian khan established a federal union with the seven Slavic tribes living in the provinces of Thrace and Moesia. The language and culture remained Slavic, and by the 9th century the Bulgarians had fully merged with the Slavs.

The first Bulgarian empire (681–1018), established by Khan Asparuhk, or Isperikh (ruled 680–701), and his successor, Tervel (ruled 701–718), soon emerged as a significant Balkan power and a threat to the East Roman empire (Byzantium).

The Bulgarian empire emerged and received official recognition following several military victories over the cosmopolitan East Roman empire. The decisive battles began in the Danube delta area in the year 679 A.D. In 678 the Roman emperor Constantine IV Pagonatus successfully defended Constantinople against the frightening attacks of the Arabs. After having smashed the Muslim fleets and routed the Arab armies and triumphing in the metropolis, the emperor decided to destroy the Bulgarians community at the delta of Danube. In 679, he began to transfer Roman armies from east border and to prepare a large army against the Bulgarians. After organizing a large army of infantry, cavalry, a vast assortment of siege equipment, and a formidable naval force, Constantine IV Pagonatus set out to the Danube. This is cited in the Acts of the Sixth Oecumenical Council of the Christian Church held in Constantinople (present-day Istanbul). This council, over the course of almost a year, debated and asserted - in opposition to the monotheistic heresy - the official thesis that Christ had two wills, one divine and the other human.

On 18 March 681, the Roman emperor departed the Council to destroy the Bulgarian settlement at the delta of Danube, pretending that this violated the wholeness of the empire. Quite a bizarre argument, knowing that more than 2.5 million Slavonic people have been violating the wholeness of the empire for more that 3 centuries. The real reason for the emperor’s decision was the defensive federal alliance concluded between the Bulgarians and the seven Slavonic tribes living in Thrace and Moesia, as well as with the Slavonic tribe of Severi living in the plain between the Carpathians and the Danube river. The Slavo-Bulgarian alliance created a federal structures imposing the rule of law in the former Roman provinces of Moesia, Thracia and part of Daciae as well as in the lands between Danube and Dnepr river. Even more important, the alliance combined the large but sluggish and undisciplined infantry troops of Slavonic tribes with the fast, hard-hitting and well-organized Bulgarian cavalry.

Although surprised by the sudden and unprovoked attack and amazed at the multitude of cavalry and ships, the Bulgarians organized their forces and resisted the Roman army. On the fifth day of the battle khan Asparukh headed the counterattack of Bulgarian cavalry and utterly routed the Roman legions. Severely defeated by the Bulgarians, the Roman emperor Constantine IV hardly escape fleeing on a boat and abandoning his army.

Bulgarian triumph over the Roman emperor Constantine IV, 681 AD

Nikephoros, c. 36, ed. Mango, pp. 88-91

'When [the Byzantine emperor] Constantine became aware that the people which had settled by the Danube (Istros) was attempting to devastate by its incursions the neighbouring places that were under Roman [Byzantine] rule, he conveyed an army to Thrace and, furthermore, fitted out a fleet and set out to ward them off. On seeing the multitude of cavalry and ships, and amazed as they were by the unexpected suddenness [of the attack], the Bulgarians (Boulgaroi) fled to their fortifications and remained there for four days. Since, however, the Romans were unable to engage them in battle because of the difficulty of the terrain, they regained strength and eagerness. Now the emperor was seized by an attack of gout and being in much pain, sailed off to the city of Mesembria for treatment after giving orders to the officers and soldiers to keep on investing the fort ... But a rumour spread that the emperor had fled, and being on this account thrown into confusion they fled headlong ... Seeing this the Bulgarians pursued them in strength, killing those that they caught and wounding many others. After crossing the Danube in the direction of Varna ... and perceiving how strong and secure was the inland area thanks to the river and the great difficulty of the terrain, they settled there. They subjugated the neighbouring Slavic tribes (Sklavenon ethnon), some of which they directed to guard the area in the vicinity of the Avars and others to watch the Roman [Byzantine] border. So, fortifying themselves and gaining in strength, they attempted to lay waste the villages and towns of Thrace. Seeing this the emperor was obliged to treat with them and pay them tribute.' (Nikephoros, c. 36, ed. Mango, pp. 88-91)

The formation of the state was not the result of a single act. The western chronicler Siegebert added to his notes on the year 680: 'Henceforth the Bulgarian kingdom must be noted'. This statement was fully justified, for Khan Asparouh's Bulgarians had united with the seven Slav tribes who inhabited the territory north of the Balkan Range from as early as the first battles with Byzantium. The Byzantine chroniclers Patriarch Nicephorus (8th century) and Theophanes the Confessor (late 8th and early 9th century) gave a more detailed account of the occurrences of the time. To quote Theophanes on the treaty of the Byzantine empire with the new state, forced by the actions of the Bulgarians:

'the emperor made peace with them, undertaking to pay an annual tax to the disgrace of the Romans [Byzantines] and because of our numerous sins. It is a wonder for all people, both far and near, to hear that the man who had made all people to the East, West, North and South pay taxes to him, was defeated by this new people'.

Among domestic sources on the foundation of the Bulgarian state the most important is the Book of the Bulgarian Khans - the first Bulgarian chronicle, compiled at two different times: initially during the rule of the founder of the Bulgarian state Khan Asparouh (680-701), and during the second half of the eighth century.

The new Bulgarian state united Bulgarians, Slavs and the native population, which consisted mainly of Thracians. Its borders in the centuries that followed varied between the Black Sea, the Aegean and the Adriatic Sea. Included into its border for a long time were the central and north-eastern parts of the Balkan Peninsula where traces of human life have been found from the end of the early Palaeolithic period, dating 200,000 years. A centre of civilization, considered to be the earliest in Europe and comparable to ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, has been found in this region and mainly in the plains to the north and south of the Balkan Range during archaeological excavations. It has been established that the people who lived in the farming communities of the Early and New Stone Age were familiar with metal casting and applied it independently of other early civilizations.

In 809 khan Krum (ruled 803-814) captured Serdika (Sofia) from the Byzantines thus opening the route to the Bulgarians of Kuber (Asparukh’s brother) who settled in the Bitola country (nowadays Macedonia), for which reason Byzantine chroniclers called this settlement 'Bulgaria' too. The unification of forces between the Bulgarians of Asparukh and Kuber gave a strong impetus to the rapid development of the First Bulgarian empire. Bulgarian army established its out-and-out supremacy in East Europe. Krum crushed the Roman army of emperor Nicephorus I Logothete in the breathtaking night battle at Varbitza Pass on 26 July 811; later he routed the enormous Roman army (outnumbering the Bulgarians by possibly nine to one) of emperor Michael I Rangabe in the remarkable battle at Versinikia on 22 June 813 (prolongated for more than 15 days); besieged Constantinople, and withdrew only after obtaining the yearly tribute due for securing the North frontier of the East Roman empire.

In the 9th cent. Bulgaria became the arena of political and cultural rivalry between Constantinople and Rome. In 865, Boris I adopted Christianity, and in 870 Constantinople recognized the independence of the Bulgarian church. Bulgaria received Byzantine culture through the Slavic literary language developed by St. Cyril and St. Methodius in Moravia and brought to the Balkans by their disciples.

The first Bulgarian empire reached its height under Simeon I the Great (893–927). In the late 9th and early 10th centuries, Bulgaria became the strongest nation of Eastern Europe during the reign of Boris's son Simeon. A brilliant administrator and military leader, Simeon introduced Byzantine culture into his realm, encouraged education, obtained new territories, defeated the Magyars (Hungarians), and conducted a series of successful wars against the East Roman Empire. (see the map)

In 913 AD Simeon was proclaimed as a Ceasar -  'Emperor of the Bulgarians and Romans'.

Theophanes Continuatus
The Accession of Constantine VII and the Coronation of Bulgarian emperor Simeon I, AD 913
Theophanes Continuatus, ed. Bekker, p. 381 ff.
The Reign of Constantine, Son of Leo

[p. 385] 5. In the month of August, Simeon the ruler (archon) of the Bulgarians marched against the Romans with a vast and mighty host. He reached Constantinople, pitched camp and encircled it with an entrenchment from Blachernai [Palace, in the northwest] to the so-called Golden Gate [to the southwest, modern Yedikule]; he was confident that he would capture it without difficulty. But when he realized how strong were the walls, and how stalwart were the defenders with their stone-throwing and arrow-firing machines, his hopes faded and he withdrew to the so-called Hebdomon and sued for peace. The regents accepted his offer of peace most eagerly, and Simeon dispatched Theodore the magistros to discuss terms for peace. The Patriarch Nicholas and Stephen and the magistros John took the emperor and made for Blachernai, where they welcomed Simeon's two sons who dined with the emperor in the palace. Then the Patriarch Nicholas went out to Simeon, and Simeon bowed his head to him. After he had prayed the Patriarch placed his own mitre (epirrhiptarion) instead of the crown (stemma) - so they say (hos phasi) - on Simeon's head. Then, when they had been given measureless and great gifts, Simeon and his sons returned to their own land, departing without an agreement about the aforementioned peace.

After having lived and studied for long years in Constantinople, Simeon, the Archon of Bulgarians, should know perfectly well that it is impossible to take the city without a maritime blockade. Therefore he never ordered an attack against the city. He is organizing the siege in order to put pressure on the Byzantine political elite and to make them accept his coronation as the “Emperor of the Bulgarians and Romans”. After achieving his purpose - to be proclaimed and accepted by the Romans as the Emperor and as the spiritual father of all Christians [Patriarch Nicholas placed his own mitre (epirrhiptarion) instead of the crown (stemma)], Simeon returned to Bulgaria without signing an agreement. The peace agreement is worthless as Simeon did not invaded the Roman empire with belligerent intention.

When Simeon intended to organize a bona fide siege of Constantinople he would send a diplomatic mission to the Caliph of Baghdad in order to obtain the support of his military fleet. The negotiations are successful and only the blind chance would safe the Roman capital. At their way back Bulgarian and Arab envoys are stopped by haphazard by Roman military see patrol. After investigation the Roman rulers realized the looming danger of the alliance between Simeon the Great and the Arab Caliphate. They would immediately send a diplomatic mission and huge gifts to the caliph of Baghdad in order to prevent further negotiations with the Bulgarians.

This text can be compared with the rather more obscure account of the Coronation of Simeon contained in an oration also by Theodore Daphnopates, given to celebrate the marriage of Simeon's son Peter to Maria Lekapena. Daphnopates, imperial secretary to Romanos I, wrote in praise of the restoration of correct order, with the Bulgarian ruler once again the spiritual son of the emperor. He alluded to the events of 913 thus: R. Jenkins, 'The Peace with Bulgaria (927) Celebrated by Theodore Daphnopates', Polychronion. Festschrift F. Dolger (Heidelberg, 1966), 287-303.

Theophanes Continuatus
The Byzantine Attack on Bulgaria, AD 917
Theophanes Continuatus, ed. Bekker, 388-90.
(Cf. Symeon Logothete, ed. Bekker, pp. 881-3.)

[p. 388] Aware of the elevation (eparsis) of Simeon, and his attempts to gain control over (epithesis) the Christians (Christianoi)*, the Empress Zoe determined in council to effect an exchange of prisoners and a peace treaty with the Agarenes, and to transfer the whole Anatolian army to make war on and destroy Simeon.

[* The wording of this clause is open to a number of interpretations: it is translated here to indicate that Simeon had been raised above his station (eparsis) by his coronation in 913, and with his pride thus inflated, he had determined to claim authority over (epithesis) not only Bulgarians, but also Byzantines (since Christianoi refers only to Romaioi, i.e. Byzantines, and not the Christian Boulgaroi). Evidence for this may be seen on certain of Simeon's seals, where he claims to be 'Emperor of the Bulgarians and Romans'. The latest research suggests that Simeon only made such claims after 920, but this would not stop Theophanes Continuatus using this anachronistically as justification for an unprovoked Byzantine attack on fellow Christians.]

The patrkios John Rodinos and Michael Toxaras, therefore, set out for Syria to arrange the prisoner exchange. And having made the customary cash payments to the tagmata, both conscripted forces and the thematic armies were transported to Thrace. The magistros Leo Phokas was Domestic of the Schools [i.e. commander-in chief]: he was a man more renowned for his bravery than for his knowledge of generalship. Then the venerable and life-giving cross was led out to Thrace by

[p. 389] Constantine Kephalas, protopapas of the palace, and Constantine Balelias, where everyone bowed before it and and swore together to die for each other, and they set forth in full array against the Bulgarians. The tagma of the Exkoubitoi was commanded by John Grapson, the tagma of the Hikanatoi by Maroules' son. Romanos Argyros was a general, as was his brother Leo and Bardas Phokas, with whom went Melias with the Armenians and all the other generals (strategoi) of the themata. In addition to the others, the patrikios Constantine Lips accompanied the Domestic Leo, to whom he was counselor in all matters.


The Battle of Acheloos (Acheloi), 20 August 917 AD

On 20 August, in the fifth indiction [AD 917], the battle between the Romans and Bulgarians was fought by the river Acheloos [near the modern village Acheloi, 8 kilometers north from Anchialos (modern Pomorie) on Bulgaria's Black Sea coast]. And because the judgments of God are unfathomable and inscrutable, the Romans were completely routed. Their headlong flight was punctuated by fearful cries as some men were trampled by comrades and others were killed by the enemy; there was such a letting of blood as had not been seen for very many years. Leo [Phokas] was saved by fleeing to Mesembria [modern Nesebar on Bulgaria's Black Sea coast], but in the thick of the battle Constantine Lips, John Grapson and many other commanders (archontes) were cut down. Romanos [Lekapenos], patrikios and admiral (drungarios) of the fleet had set out with the whole fleet to the Danube to support Leo Phokas, since, as already stated [at p. 387], John Bogas had been sent to bring the Pechenegs [to the Danube]. Admiral Romanos had been ordered to ferry them across to fight as Leo Phokas' allies against the Bulgarians, but Romanos and John were at loggerheads, and observing their disputes and lack of agreement the Pechenegs withdrew to their own lands. So, when they returned to the city [of Constantinople] in the aftermath of the battle, the outcome was blamed on them. Romanos was even under threat of being condemned to be blinded on account of his carelessness, or rather his wickedness, in failing to ferry the Pechenegs across [the Danube], withdrawing prematurely, and failing even to gather the fleeing Romans on his ships. And he would have suffered this fate had the judgment not been prevented by the patrikios Constantine Gongylos and the magistros Stephen, who had great influence with the empress. The Bulgarians were so inspired by the victory that they invaded as far as the City. Leo, the Domestic of the Schools, John the hetaireiarches and Nicholas the son of Doukas went out to a village in Thrace called Katasurtas, taking a very large army against the Bulgarians. At night the Bulgarians launched a surprise attack on them, and the Domestic fled, but Nicholas the son of Doukas was killed alongside many others.

Simeon became the most powerful monarch in contemporary Eastern Europe. His reign was marked by great cultural advances led by the followers of the brothers Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius. During this period Old Church Slavonic, the first written Slavic language, and the Cyrillic alphabet were adopted.

After Simeon death the country was rent by the heresy of the Bogomils. Weakened by domestic strife and successive Magyar raids, Bulgarian power declined steadily during the following half-century. In 969 invading Russians seized the capital and captured the royal family. The Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimisces, alarmed over the Russian advance into south-eastern Europe, intervened in 970 in the Russo-Bulgarian conflict. The Russians were compelled to withdraw from Bulgaria in 972, and the eastern part of the country was annexed to the Byzantine Empire.

Samuel, the son of a Bulgarian provincial governor, became the King of Bulgaria in 976. Samuel's army was overwhelmed in the Battle of Kleidion (the Key) on 29 July 1014. The notorious Byzantine Emperor Basil II, glorified by Greeks as the “Bulgars-slayer”, blinded the Bulgarian captives, around 15,000 and led them back to Samuel by a one-eyed man. When Bulgarian King saw his blinded soldiers returning he could not bear it, but was himself struck blind and had a heart attack. Bulgarian King Samuel died two days later on 6 October. After his death, the Emperor Basil II continued attacking Bulgaria and finally incorporated the state into his empire in 1018.

[See the description of the infamous Battle of Kleidion, 1014 by Byzantine Chronicle John Skylitzes in his illustrious Synopsis Historion.]

The Battle of Kleidion, 29 July 1014

John Skylitzes, Synopsis Historion

Basil and Constantine, c. 35 (ed. Thurn, pp. 348-9)

The emperor [Basil II] did not relent, but every year he marched into Bulgaria and laid waste and ravaged all before him. Samuel was not able to resist openly, nor to face the emperor in open warfare, so, weakened from all sides, he came down from his lofty lair to fortify the entrance to Bulgaria with ditches and fences. Knowing that the emperor always made his incursions through [the plain] known as Campu Lungu and [the pass known as] Kleidion ('the key'), he undertook to fortify the difficult terrain to deny the emperor access. A wall was built across the whole width [of the pass] and worthy defenders were committed to it to stand against the emperor. When he arrived and made an attempt to enter [Bulgaria], the guards defended the wall manfully and bombarded and wounded the attackers from above. When the emperor had thus despaired of gaining passage, Nikephoros Xiphias, the strategos of Philippopolis, met with the emperor and urged him to stay put and continue to assault the wall, while, as he explained, he turned back with his men and, heading round to the south of Kleidion through rough and trackless country, crossed the very high mountain known as Belasica. On 29 July, in the twelfth indiction [1014], [Xiphias and his men] descended suddenly on the Bulgarians, from behind and screaming battle cries. Panic stricken by the sudden assault [the Bulgarians] turned to flee, while the emperor broke through the abandoned wall. Many [Bulgarians] fell and many more were captured; Samuel barely escaped from danger with the aid of his son, who fought nobly against his attackers, placed him on a horse, and made for the fortress known as Prilep. The emperor blinded the Bulgarian captives -- around 15 000 they say -- and he ordered every group of one hundred to be led back to Samuel by a one-eyed man. And when [Samuel] saw the equal and ordered detachments returning he could not bear it manfully nor with courage, but was himself struck blind and fell in a faint to the ground. His companions revived him for a short time with water and smelling salts, and somewhat recovered he asked for a sip of cold water. Taking a gulp he had a heart attack and died two days later on 6 October.

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