Language Abuse: Historical Examples
Language Abuse Part 3
Historical Examples
I have chosen examples of real speeches made by three politicians - Winston Churchill, Abraham Lincoln and Adolf Hitler - to demonstrate how language is used to obtain particular effects (in this context, to transmit the policy of the speaker). In each case, the text of the speech is given followed by the phrase by phrase analysis.
Winston Churchill (1940?)
"We shall not flag nor fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France and on the seas and oceans; we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air. We shall defend our island whatever the cost may be; we shall fight on beaches, landing grounds, in fields, in streets and on the hills. We shall never surrender and even if, which I do not for the moment believe, this island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving, then our empire beyond the seas, armed and guarded by the British Fleet, will carry on the struggle until in God's good time the New World with all its power and might, sets forth to the liberation and rescue of the Old."
ANALYSIS
We shall not flag nor fail.
{assertion in future tense + 'we' undefined}
We shall go on to the end.
{assertion again + presupposition of 'end' +'we' undefined}
We shall fight in France
{assertion + presupposition of fight in France}
and on the seas and oceans;
{presupposition of fighting on sea ocean}
we shall fight with growing confidence
{assertion +presupposition that confidence will grow}
and growing strength in the air.
{presuppositions: + there is strength in the air and it is growing + no frame of reference for 'strength'}
We shall defend our island
{assertion + defend is a generalisation + our is now defined as referring to island dwellers}
whatever the cost may be;
{form of 'cost' unspecified + presupposition there will be a cost}
we shall fight on beaches,
{assertion + presupposition of fighting on beaches}
landing grounds,
{presupposition that there are landing grounds and that there will be fighting on them}
in fields,
{presupposition of fighting in fields}
in streets and on the hills.
{presupposition of fighting in streets && on hills}
{NB that the previous four phrases all presuppose an invasion of some kind - which is exactly what the UK Government thought at the time}
We shall never surrender
{assertion + the phrase has an implicit presupposition that surrender is on the agenda}
and even if,
{start of IF/THEN presupposition}
which I do not for the moment believe,
{deletion of belief system}
this island or a large part of it were
{non-specific 'large part'}
subjugated and starving,
{generalisations}
then our empire beyond the seas,
{presupposes all the empire}
armed and guarded by the British Fleet,
{presupposes all the empire can be armed and guarded by the British Fleet: presupposes British Fleet exists in such circumstances}
will carry on the struggle
{asserts they will, they might not be inclined}
until in God's good time the New World
{asserts God exists and has 'good time' + 'New World' is a generalisation}
with all its power and might,
{presupposes New World has power and might}
sets forth to the liberation
{presupposes they have not 'set forth' + liberation is a generalisation}
and rescue of the Old.
{presupposes the Old will need rescuing, presupposes the New is so inclined + 'Old' is undefined}
Abraham Lincoln (1863)
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate - we cannot consecrate - we cannot hallow - this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us - that from these honoured dead we may take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion - that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain - that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom - and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
ANALYSIS
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
{parts of this statement are factual, parts assertion. It is a fact that a new nation was founded at the stated time & dedicated to the given proposition (and others), however - since the words 'fathers' (inaccurate), 'brought forth', 'nation', 'liberty', 'men' and 'equal' are all to some extent nominalisations - there is assertion present. ''Our' is undefined.}
Now we are engaged in a great civil war,
{'we' +'great' is a relative term}
testing whether that nation,
{presupposes the war is a test +deletion attached to 'that'}
or any nation so conceived and so dedicated,
{presupposes there are similar 'nations'}
can long endure.
{presupposes nations can 'long endure' + 'long' is relative term - no reference frame}
We are met on a great battlefield of that war.
{'great' again +'we' + this is not an assertion if the place is self evidently a battlefield}
We have come to dedicate a portion of that field,
{assertion; some of the 'we' may not be there for that purpose + portion is relative term: no reference frame + 'battlefield' has now become 'field' + presupposition that the field can be dedicated}
as a final resting place for those
{presupposes that there is final rest + presupposes this place will not be disturbed}
who here gave their lives that that nation might live.
{Presupposes that they gave their lives, and for the stated purpose + 'nation' is an ill defined concept
It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
{assertion: fitting and proper for whom? + what do the terms 'fitting' and 'proper' actually mean? + do what? + undefined 'we' is used again}
The reader is invited to assess the remainder of the speech.
Now for the big one, an Adolf Hitler speech (excerpt from concluding address to court in 1924). Hitler privately admitted that he abused language and that the spoken word was the best way to move men: the reader is reminded that this man, using his undoubted power of oratory, very nearly ruled the entire world: see the footnote below.
Adolf Hitler (1924)
He who is born for politics must practise politics, whether he is free or in prison, sitting on a silk upholstered chair or forced to content himself with a hard bench; the fate of his people will exercise him from early morning till late at night. The man who is born to be a dictator is not compelled; he wills it, he is not driven forward, but drives himself. The mean who feels called upon to govern a people has no right to say: 'If you want me summon me I will co-operate.' No, it is his duty to step forward. The army which we have formed is growing day by day. I nourish the proud hope that one day the hour will come when those rough companies will grow to battalions, the battalions to regiments, the regiments to divisions, that the old cockade will be taken from the mud...
ANALYSIS
He who is born for politics
{presupposes men are born for politics, particular men: Hitler obliquely refers to himself in the first part of this address +'politics' is not defined}
must practise politics,
{if the first presupposition is accepted, a causality is now asserted as if it were a compulsion}
whether he is free or in prison,
sitting on a silk upholstered chair
or forced to content himself with a hard bench;
{previous three lines are all self referral: Hitler is facing a gaol sentence (and gets one) and is pointing out it won't stop him (it didn't)}
the fate of his people will exercise him
{presupposes fate and that it affects the undefined 'people' +the possessive term 'his' is applied to people +'exercise' is not defined}
from early morning till late at night.
{non-specific time/timescales}
The man who is born to be a dictator
{presupposes a certain (singular) man is born to be a dictator +the word 'dictator' is a nominalisation - dictate what, who, when, where and how}
is not compelled;
{assertion}
he wills it,
{assertion}
he is not driven forward,
{presupposes there is 'forward' & the man is not driven: driven by whom?}
but drives himself.
{assertion}
The man who feels called upon
{assertion that this man feels and heeds some call: call from whom?}
to govern a people
{'govern'? +'a people'}
has no right to say:
{presupposes there are rights and that a particular right does not belong to 'the man' +'rights'? +say to whom?}
'If you want me summon me I will co-operate.'
{presupposes want on the part of someone (undefined who), that they have power of summons and that 'the man' has the ability to co-operate +'co-operate'?}
No, it is his duty to step forward.
{presupposes duty and that 'the man' is bound by it +'duty'? +'step forward'?}
The army which we have formed
{shift from talking about the abstract 'man' to personalised form of address +'we' is undefined +assertion that some kind of army has been formed by the undefined 'we' +'army' type/extent is undefined}
is growing day by day.
{assertion of growth}
I nourish the proud hope that one day the hour will come
{'we' has shifted to 'I' +presupposes there is a proud hope and that it can be nourished +presupposes an ongoing time process}
when those rough companies
{assertion that companies exist and that they are rough +'rough' is not defined: could mean disorderly, violent, unkempt, etc. +extent, size and makeup of companies not defined - the reader is tacitly invited to assume military definition by context}
will grow to battalions,
{presupposed growth, +see comments above re-companies}
the battalions to regiments,
the regiments to divisions,
{see comments above}
that the old cockade will be taken from the mud...
{presupposition that there is an 'old cockade' and it is presently in the 'mud' +the terms 'old cockade' and 'mud' are not defined +this is a powerful and succinct metaphor for Germany, the German army and people, German pride, (all of which are abstractions anyway) and the conditions imposed by the Versailles Treaty.}
Hitler was probably the outstanding orator of the twentieth century, and his speeches are well worth study as exercises in language, irrespective of the politics. Further speech fragments are available at http://www.home.earthlink.net/~centurion88/hitler_speeches/. I leave this section with another Hitler speech for the reader to analyse.
Adolf Hitler (1923)
From blood, authority of personality, and a fighting spirit springs that value which alone entitles a people to look around with glad hope, and that alone is also the condition for the life which men then desire. And when that is realised, then that too is realised for which today the political parties strive: prosperity, happiness of the individual, family-life, etc. First will come honour and then freedom, and from both of these happiness, prosperity, life: in a word, that state of things will return which we Germans perhaps dimly saw before the War, when individuals can once more live with joy in their hearts because life has a meaning and a purpose, because the close of life is then not in itself the end, since there will be an endless chain of generations to follow: man will know that what we create will not sink into Orcus but will pass to his children and to his children's children. And so this victory which we have just won is nothing else than the winning of a new weapon for our fight.... IT IS NOT FOR SEATS IN PARLIAMENT THAT WE FIGHT, BUT WE WIN SEATS IN PARLIAMENT IN ORDER THAT ONE DAY WE MAY BE ABLE TO LIBERATE THE GERMAN PEOPLE....
[Footnote on the power of the spoken word: Hitler supposedly spoke before 35 million people in his lifetime (excluding broadcasts). His self declared objectives in speaking were the elimination of thought, suggestive paralysis and the creation of a receptive state of fanatical devotion. Since, in his view, 'the masses are like an animal that obeys instincts,' he prescribed 'maximum primitiveness, simple catch phrases, constant repetition, the practice of only attacking one opponent at a time as well as the dogmatic tone of the speeches, which deliberately refused to give "reasons" or to "refute other opinions".' (Joachim Fest: The Face of the Third Reich)]
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