Education
Principles of Sociology
Darryl Hall
Department of Sociology
University of Nevada, Reno
Education
• Education is the social institution responsible for the systematic transmission of knowledge, skills, and cultural values within a formally organized structure. It is an extension of the socialization process that begins in the family.
• The experience and success of students in the educational institution is socially structured. One’s social class, race, and sex play an important part in determining access to specific schools as well as which fields are the most “appropriate” to study.
Academic Standards
• A Nation at Risk - A 1983 governmental commission (the National Commission on Excellence in Education) issued a very scathing report of what students are learning and are not learning after their eighteen-month study
• 40% of those screened could not draw inferences from written materials
• 33% of those screened could not complete multi-step mathematical problems
• Other Insights
-lack of understanding of and interest in the importance of education
-apathetic attitudes toward classes, course materials, doing assignments, and attendance
-belief that good grades need not be “earned,” but rather just rewarded (as if students had a right to them)
- Following the commission’s report, many state and local school districts initiated reforms; despite some progress, recent repots suggest that many problems remain:
• The U.S. devotes the shortest amount to time to teaching its children of any advanced nation. A 1999 study revealed that U.S. high school students score considerably below international averages in both mathematics and science.
• In 1998, average SAT verbal scores were 27 points lower than they were in 1970
• Nearly half of all college students in 1999 needed to take at least one remedial course.
• A 1999 report said little change occurred in students’ reading performance between 1971 and 1996; one-fourth of eighth graders and twelfth graders score below average.
• A 1999 report reveled that one-third of fourth-grade students perform below grade level, although that is an improvement from one-half in 1990.
• One in four U.S. adults is functionally illiterate -- unable to read and/or write at the skill level necessary for carrying out everyday tasks.
Problems in Schools
• School Discipline – many believe that schools need to teach discipline because it is not addressed within the home setting
• Violence in Schools – students and teachers are assaulted, weapons are brought to school, and various social problems spill into schools
• The Silent Classroom – it is the norm to be quiet during class; only a handful of students speak
• Apathy – students frequently do not involve themselves in the learning process
Characteristics of Education in the U.S.
1) Education as a Conserving Force
- The formal system of education in the U.S. (and in all societies) is conservative because the avowed function of the schools is to teach newcomers the attitudes, values, roles, specialties, information, and training necessary for the maintenance of society. The special task of education is to preserve the culture—not to transform it. There is always an explicit or implicit assumption in U.S. schools that the American way is the only really right way.
2) “Sifting” and “Sorting” Function of Schools
- Education is a selection process, where school performance separates those youths who come to occupy higher-status positions and those who will occupy the lower rungs in the occupational-prestige ladder. Although the goal of education is to select on ability alone, ascribed social status has a pronounced effect on the degree of success in the educational system.
3) Mass Education
- Education is provided for all citizens, and children are compelled to remain in school at least until eight grade or until age 16 (although the law varies somewhat from state to state). The result is that many students are in school for the wrong reason; the motivation is compulsion, not interest in acquiring skills or curiosity about their world. This involuntary feature of U.S. schools is unfortunate because many school problems are related to the lack of student interest.
4) Preoccupation with Order and Control
- U.S. schools are characterized by constraints on individual freedom. The school day is regimented by the dictates of the clock. Activities begin and cease on a timetable, not in accordance with the degree of interest shown or whether students have mastered the subject. Also, there is a preoccupation with discipline to address unwarranted noise and movement, as well as a concern for following orders. Some schools also demand conformity in clothing and hairstyles.
5) Local Control of Education
- Although the state and federal governments finance and control education in part, the bulk of the money and control for education comes from local communities. There is a general fear of centralization of education—into a statewide system or, even worse, federal control. Because, it is commonly argued, local people know best the special needs of their children, local boards control allocation of monies, curricular content, the rules for running the schools, and the hiring and firing of personnel. There are few negative consequences from local control of education:
a) Since tax money from the local area traditionally finances the schools, the quality of educations depends largely on whether the tax base is strong or weak.
b) There is a lack of common curriculum and standards, which results in a wide variation in the preparation of students. Also, because families move on the average of once every five years, there are large numbers of children who find the requirements different, sometimes very different, from their previous schools.
6) Competitive Nature of U.S. Education
- Competition in U.S. schools extends to virtually all school activities. The composition of athletic teams, cheerleading squads, debate teams, choruses, drill teams, bands, and dramatic play casts are almost always determined by competition among classmates. Grading in courses is also often based on the comparison of individuals (grading on a curve) rather than on measurement against a standard. Competitive classroom games may also be created to relieve boredom in the classroom. In all of these cases, the individual learns at least two lessons:
a) Your classmates are enemies, for if they succeed, they do so at your expense
b) You better not fail—fear of failure, rather than intellectual curiosity or the love of knowledge, is the motivation for students.
Functionalist Perspective of Education
• Functionalists consider education to perform the following manifest functions:
1) Transmission of the mainstream culture – Schools transmit cultural norms and values to each new generation and play an active part in the process of assimilation, whereby recent immigrants learn dominant cultural values, attitudes, and behaviors.
2) Social placement – Schools are responsible for identifying the most qualified people to fill the positions available in society; as a result, students are channeled into programs based on individual ability and academic achievement.
3) Training students for adult roles – Schools assist students with personal development as well as provide career guidance.
4) Socialization – Schools teach students the appropriate student role, specific academic subjects, and political socialization.
5) Social Control – Schools are responsible for teaching values such as discipline, respect, obedience, punctuality, and perseverance. Schools teach conformity by encouraging young people to be good students, conscientious future workers, and law-abiding citizens.
6) Change and innovation – Schools are a source of change and innovation. As student populations change over time, new programs are introduced to meet societal needs (e.g., sex education, drug education, and multicultural studies). Innovation in the form of new knowledge is required in colleges and universities.
• Functionalists also point out that schools perform latent functions:
1) Restricting some activities – Early in the 20th century, all states passed mandatory education laws that require children to attend school until they reach a specified age or complete a minimum level of education. This served to keep students off the street and out of the full-time job market for a number of years, thus helping to keep unemployment within reasonable bounds.
2) Matchmaking and production of social networks – Because schools bring together people of similar age, social class, and race/ethnicity, young people often meet future marriage partners and develop social networks.
3) Creation of a generation gap – Students may learn information in school that contradicts beliefs held by their parents.
The Conflict Perspective of Education
• Conflict theorists believe that schools often perpetuate class, racial-ethnic, and gender inequalities as some groups seek to maintain their privileged position at the expense of others.
• Tracking – The assignment of students to specific courses and educational programs based on their test scores, previous grades, or both.
- Numerous studies have demonstrated that ability grouping and tracking affect students’ academic achievement and career choices. Although the stated purpose of tracking systems is to permit students to study subjects that are suitable to their skills and interests, most research reveals that this purpose has not been achieved. Rather, tracking is a mechanism through which poor and minority students receive a diluted academic program, making it much more likely that they will fall even further behind their white, middle-class counterparts.
• Hidden Curriculum – the transmission of cultural values and attitudes, such as conformity and obedience to authority, through implied demands found in the rules, routines, and regulations of schools
- Although all students are subjected to a hidden curriculum, working-class and poverty-level students may be affected most adversely. Also, gender bias is embedded in both the formal and hidden curricula of schools.
The Reproduction of Social Class
• Money is the largest stumbling block to higher education, and family income is still the best predictor for college attendance
- Almost 68% of those making at least $75,000 attend college
- 19% of those making under $10,000 attend college
• On average, a person with a college degree will add almost $500,000 to his or her earnings over a lifetime
• Research shows that poor students and the schools serving them:
1) Have one computer for every sixteen students, compared to one computer for every seven students in the affluent schools
2) Have teachers that are underpaid relatively to their peers in affluent schools. In Los Angeles, for example, teachers with 5 years experience make $29,500, while teachers in nearby Beverly Hills with similar experience make $73,400. The result is that poor districts will have trouble keeping excellent teachers.
3) Are more likely than their affluent peers to be taught by teachers who did not major in the subject area in which they teach
4) Are more likely to attend schools in need of repairs, renovations, and modernization
5) Are more likely to attend schools that lack some necessary classroom materials
6) Have higher pupil-teacher ratios
Sex and Education
• An extensive national survey on gender and self-esteem by the American Association of University Women (AAUW) in 1992 found that young women and young men are treated very differently in our educational system:
1)Teachers pay less attention to girls than to boys
2)Teachers are more likely to encourage boys to talk in class and volunteer for experiments
3)Teachers encourage boys to be problem solvers by asking them more complicated questions than they ask girls
4)Reading materials use language in biased ways, or they may stereotype women or ignore them
Problems of Bureaucracy
Theodore Sizer identifies five ways in which bureaucratic schools undermine education:
1) Rigid Uniformity
2) Numerical Ratings
3) Rigid Expectations
4) Specialization
5) Little individual responsibility
