Dr. M A Fazal
[This article was written in 1990 in relation to a decision of the Government
of Bangladesh to deal with the consequences of the flood in 1988. Many of the
recommendations of this article might be relevant to possible actions that might
be taken as a result of the flood in 2004.
The recommendations of the article might be equally relevant to a programme of afforestation, soil conservation and transformation of deserts/semi-desert arid regions into agricultural farm lands in Sudan, Sinai (a part of which could come within this author's proposed "Federal State of Israel and Palestine") and the Thor desert in the Indian sub- continent. This author's proposals for a federal/confederal solution to conflicts in those parts of the world envisage such a programme.
If Egypt were to agree to relinquish its sovereignty over a part of Sinai (relatively a smaller part of Sinai) to be joined with the proposed "Federal State of Israel and Palestine" in return for having its own part of Sinai (the larger part of Sinai) turned into green farm lands and forests by the "Federation of Israel and Palestine", aided by the outside world, then the whole of the Sinai desert could be transformed into a granary of the Middle East. At present only 3% of Egypt's land surface is cultivated entirely with the water of the Nile River. If Sinai could be transformed into agricultural land, it would supply food for much of the population of Egypt and of the Middle East as a whole. According to a report of the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations, the soil of the Middle Eastern deserts is of high quality for agriculture. All that is required is water and fertiliser to transform them into green and fertile agricultural land.
It is hoped that the planners and decision-makers in each of these cases will find the content of this article useful since they will need to anticipate the problems that could arise and know how to deal with them while engaged in a programme of afforestation, soil conservation and transformation of desert/semi desert arid zones into agricultural farm lands by irrigation. That is the justification for publication of the article on this website in 2004.]
Press reports indicate that the Government of Bangladesh has decided to undertake the development of the water resources of the Brahmaputra basin and has commissioned foreign experts for the purpose. The Government has also sought assistance from UNDP in preparing a Master Plan for Water Resource Development. The Government of Bangladesh, the foreign experts so commissioned and the public may well have regard to the following consideration while embarking on this project. The object of this work is to enable the planners policy makers and others to foresee the problems that are likely to arise and to make provisions for them.
1. Continuity of the flow of the rivers from outside Bangladesh needs to be assured.
Assuming that the project contemplated is a major one (as opposed to projects involving small-scale pump and tube-well irrigation schemes) comprising of embankments, dams, reservoirs, barrages, polders, irrigation canals etc. it would be infinitely preferable to conceive of such a project within the context of an overall settlement not only with India but also China, The Brahmaputra flows from its source eastward for about 1000 miles through China before entering India. Within India and Bangladesh the movement and behaviour of the Brahmaputra and its distributaries are liable to be changed not only by such schemes and diversion of the rivers upstream i.e. in China and India but also by natural causes (such as earthquakes) resulting variously in increased erosion of siltation, flooding and changes in river course.
The I.B.R.D. Report of 17th July 1970 entitled "Proposals for an Action Programme: East Pakistan Agriculture and water Development" was critical of the Ganges-Kobadak Project (an irrigation project in the western part of Bangladesh designed to utilise water from the tributaries of the Ganges river) on this very ground viz. that the project was conceived, planned and executed assuming but without ensuring that the flow of the Ganges would continue from India- an assumption that failed to materialise with shattering consequences for the G.K. Project. A subsequently implemented major scheme of water utilisation including diversion of rivers upstream within China or India is liable to put at risk the Brahmaputra Development Project in Bangladesh as has proved to be the case with the G.K. Project. Even if treaty undertakings are not forthcoming at least an understanding with China and India would be highly desirable.
2. Effect of the projected Brahmaputra scheme on saline intrusion from
the Bay of Bengal.
This was one of the points of criticism of the G.K. Project made by the I.B.R.D. Report of 17th July 1970 namely that the Project was conceived without regard to its probable effects on the coastal regions of the saline intrusion from the sea. The way an inland water utilisation project can enhance saline intrusion from the sea has been explained by this author else-where (1982 Asian Studies 67) with reference to the Ganges diversion at Farakka as follows:
"Salinity is due to the lowering of the fresh water levels in the river caused by the diversion of the Ganges water disturbing the saline (water of the Bay of Bengal) / fresh water (of the rivers) interface stability. The saline/fresh water interface will adopt a definite shape and undertake a movement depending on the hydrodynamic balance of fresh and salt waters. The saline/fresh water interface stability requires conditions with regard to elevation of the ground water table:
(1) It must lie above the sea-level;
(2) It must slope down towards the sea;
(3) Otherwise the rate of extraction of fresh Saline intrusion from the sea will advance inland. Diversion of the Ganges appears already to have caused widespread saline intrusion.
The fact that this has occurred is confirmed by foreign observers. Thus The Financial Times (London) of 8th November 1977 reported
"Withdrawal of 40,000 cusecs at Farakka during the crucial last 10 days of April has proved devastating ...not only to the winter rice crop, but more importantly, to the land itself, :due to the consequent increase in salinity ...Monitoring by the Government of Bangladesh during the 1975 and 1976 dry seasons showed that with the increased diversion of water (at Farakka), the penetration of saline water increased from the 170 miles to about 270 miles from the coast, affecting more than 4,000 acres. The reduced flow also affected ground water supplies, which dropped an average five feet below normal. The repercussions on agriculture were severe. A third of the region's irrigation facilities became inoperable and the rice crop was hit. The total loss in rice production was estimated at 236,000 tons -equivalent to 20 per cent of the country's total food imports. The Government reported related damage in other sectors. The catch at three key river fishing centres - Khulna, Goalando and Chandpur -dropped by 75, 34 and 46 per cent respectively...
More than 155 miles of inland navigation routes normally operable during the dry season had to be closed. The Goalpara thermal power station, sole source of power for the south-west region, was forced to close down when river
salinity rose above the tolerance levels of its equipment and fresh water had
to be brought in by barge for it to re-open. Industrial dependence on this power suffered substantial losses -in particular the paper and jute processing industries. Increased salinity similarly made five per cent of the drinking water tubewells unusable".
The process continued after the 1977 Agreement on the sharing of the Ganges waters. Bangladesh sources have disclosed
“Wastes from heavy industries situated on the banks of the Ganges and residues from agricultural fertilizers and pesticides are coming into the river lowering the acceptable quality of the river water. It is necessary to ensure that a sufficient volume of water remains in the river to dilute and oxidise the chemical and organic residues being introduced into the river flow over its long travel through India. Bangladesh has reportedly suffered losses worth over TK. 4000 million in 1980 alone. There have been crop production losses due to shortage of fresh water, reduction of soil moisture and expansion of salinity. The sundari seedlings in the Sundarbans are dying in large numbers. Rivers and creeks in 2,200 square miles of new area turned saline in 1980. During the last dry season (1980) because of the sharp fall in the water level of the Ganges, 150 miles of major navigable routes in the river and two of its offshoots and another 140 miles of minor routes became inoperable". ("Farakka and Link Canal " (1981) Bangladesh Today (London) 15- 30 April p.3)
These consequences of the Ganges diversion are likely to be repeated in the Brahmaputra basin if withdrawals of the Brahmaputra take place upstream without appropriate steps being taken to mitigate their consequences.
Even before the impact of the Farakka was felt (i.e. before the local embankments under the Master Plan for Water Resources 1964 were completed) about 1 million ha near the coast of Bangladesh were subject to tidal flooding with salt water. After Farakka, salinisation must have been massive in the Ganges basin. As far as the Brahmaputra basin is concerned saline intrusion from the sea is likely to be far more rapid and widespread than in the Ganges basin. The Brahmaputra has its dry season slope much flatter than that of the Ganges and in its estuary region the slope is often reversed. Any significant reduction in the quantum of dry season flow caused by water utilisation upstream (whether within Bangladesh, India or China) is bound to result in more adverse situation from saline intrusion than what has been experienced in the south western part of Bangladesh i.e. in the Ganges basin.
On the measures to deal with saline intrusion from the sea this author has stated elsewhere
"The only way to prevent this result (i.e. massive saline intrusion from the sea) would be to create fresh ground water regime (as opposed to saline ground water) along the entire length of the Bangladesh coast. One method of doing this is to maintain high level of the flow of the rivers by prohibiting withdrawals from the rivers in the upper riparian areas. In view of the
demand for withdrawal both in India and upper regions of Bangladesh this option is ruled out. The only other course is to dam the estuaries (as has been done in the Netherlands, Japan and Korea and other countries). However, damming
off of the estuary of the Ganges -Brahmaputra - Meghna flow is not feasible without flood control. Such a dam would obstruct the flow of flood water during the monsoon, drown the population of the areas and would eventually be washed away under the sheer weight of the accumulated water (5 million cubic feet per second). This shows that the long term effects of the canal digging operations in Bangladesh could only be dealt with if the problem is considered in wider perspective" (M.A. Fazal, "Utilisation of Water Resources and Flood Control in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan (1982) Asian Studies 67 at pp. 73-74.) i.e. in the context of a sub-continental approach which could provide for diversion of surplus flood water elsewhere (For an elaborate analysis of the Sub-continental approach to the utilisation of water resources and environmental/ecological protection see this author’s article at (1982) Asian Studies 67.)
However, embankments, extensive or localised, would give rise to some problems. This is evident from the embankments already constructed along the coasts of Bangladesh under the Master Plan of 1964. There has been rapid siltation of creeks outside some of the coastal embankments. Under natural conditions, tidal water flooding the land twice a day flows slowly off the land again as the tide falls, thus keeping creeks flushed. This natural process of flushing is obstructed by the erection of embankments.
3. There Should be a Comprehensive Policy of Land and Water Use and
Not Simply One of Water Use.
Preparations for a Master Plan for Water Resources Development suggests a plan for tapping surface and ground water for irrigation while the most acute problem that Bangladesh is likely to face will be soil deterioration threatening food production. The reasons for this are as follows:-
(a) Intensive cultivation with multiple cropping pattern.
Deterioration of soil takes place on account of the continued application of large quantities of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides and depletion of trace elements and other micro-nutrients in the context of intensive cultivation. Soils which are cultivated intensively in situations of perennial irrigation and multi-cropping are over-worked. The health and fertility of over-worked soils needs to be carefully monitored and maintained through soil testing and suitable correcting measures.
Recently an F.A.O. expert has revea1ed his findings (a) that the main components of soil fertility in Bangladesh is the biological activity in the flood water itself rather than alluvium from the seasonal flood and (b) that intensive cultivation and multiple cropping (triple cropping) have become the dominant pattern of farming in Bangladesh. Thus he wrote
"Farmers and lay officials believe that fertility of flood- plain soils is maintained by an annual deposit of alluvium from the seasonal floods. Since most floodplain areas do not receive such annual deposits, and yet clearly are at least as productive as those that do -e.g. large areas of the Brahmaputra and Ganges floodplains are triple cropped, without irrigation and with little or no use of fertilizers -the self -evident fertility of these soils must be derived from some other source. The ready availability of phosphorus and potash can be accounted for by the seasonal cycle of reduction
and oxidation in these mineral rich soils. However, this phenomenon cannot provide nitrogen, and many cultivated soils contain little organic matter as a nitrogen source. It now appears certain that the nitrogen fertility of Bangladesh's floodplain soils is provided by biological activity in the flood- water itself, especially that of blue-green algae. It is probable that such organisms can provide up to 30 kg/ha of nitrogen annually, perhaps even more on deeply flooded land where deepwater Aman (rice) is grown. Since these organisms are dependent on light for photosynthesis, it is probable that they produce more nitrogen in clear than in silty floodwater ...at least on land where wetland rice continues to be grown” (H. Brammer, “Agriculture and Food Production in Polder Areas: A Case Study from Bangladesh” (1983) vol. 8 Water International 74 at P.76)
Therefore intensive cultivation involving multiple cropping with increasing
use of inorganic fertilizers may lead to depletion of micro~ nutrients in the
soils resulting in serious deterioration in their fertility. The problem is
likely to be more acute in the western districts of Bangladesh.
(b) Erosion of fertile top soil
This can be caused either by water or wind action and is almost invariably the direct result of excessive felling of trees. [See on this, Dregne, Soils of Arid Regions (1976); Eckholm, Spreading of Deserts in the Hands of Man (1977)]. Once the natural cover of trees and grasses is destroyed, the soil becomes vulnerable to erosive action of water, particularly on hillsides and under conditions of heavy rainfall. If the denuded lands are flat and arid, they become susceptible to the erosive action of strong winds. Once erosion sets in, the land is caught in a vicious circle because the loss of its topsoil renders it increasingly less capable of sustaining vegetation just when it needs it most to save it from further damage. It is estimated that in India the area seriously affected by wind erosion is around 50 million hectares while the area seriously affected by water erosion is around 100 m.h. (B.B. Vohra, A Policy for Land and Water (1980) p. 7.).
Yet another extremely serious consequence of soil erosion is the havoc it plays with water resources. This is so because the run-off of rain water from denuded surfaces is far greater than slopes which are well-wooded and well- grassed. This means that a great deal of water which would otherwise have been retained as sub-soil or ground water is lost. This is the reason why springs and wells dry up wherever extensive denudation takes place. Fully recharged ground water aquifers play a most significant part in contributing to river flows during the lean months. Both floods and drought are thus in reality two sides of the same coin of deforestation and lack of soil conservation measures (B.B. Vohra Op.cit. 12.).
Availability of ground water during the lean months is therefore the key to sound land management. The ground water potential in the Ganges and Brahmaputra is quite high but it is primarily confined to piedmont areas in India. The Ganges basin in India and Nepal have been estimated to have an annual water yield of 88,00 million acres feet while the Brahmaputra basin in Assam has a yield potential of 8.67 MAF. This estimate is based on a recharge of 10 p.c. annual rainfall over an area of 10.67 million acres. Compared with India, Bangladesh has a lesser recharge potentiality. The total ground water potentiality in Bangladesh has been estimated to be around 9.4 MAF [Report of the Irrigation Commission, India (1972). In Bangladesh the maximum surface flow of rivers is about 6 million cusec while the minimum is in the order of 0.16 million cusec. The average dry season flow from November to May is about 0.23 million cusec. The average maximum discharge of the Ganges at Farakka in India is thought to be 446 MAF (inclusive of irrigation uses in India, the dry season flow (November to May) being 40 MAF. In the Brahmaputra the minimum discharge is 150,000 cusec and the maximum is about 2.5 million cusec at Baharudabad. The average annual discharge is about 492 MAF, while dry season flow (November to May) amounts to 112.5 MAF)]. On the basis of ground water fluctuation in November through April less than 4 MAF of this are estimated to be available at the period of demand of winter crop. Except for a limited area in the north-west, top soil in most places in Bangladesh are composed of old alluvium with a large percentage of clay materials. The old alluvium is dissected old stream beds which in turn are connected with the existing stream system.
This might mean that large areas would be unsuitable for irrigated rice production. The soil survey report carried out for the G.K. Project indicated 20% of the areas being unsuitable for irrigation because of rapidly permeable soils. These coupled with the fact that the ground water and its recharge capacity are limited ought to induce the planners to place due emphasis on soil conservation rather than irrigation.
(c) Salinity and Water-logging.
Water-logging and salinity in canal irrigated areas is a global phenomenon and has reached such serious proportion that according to a recent study as much irrigated land is going out of production in the world as is being brought under new irrigation. In Pakistan, out of a tota1 15 million hectares of irrigated lands as many as II are already suffering from water- logging and salinity. In India 6 million hectares have already been lost and further areas are affected by rising water table and salinity (B.B. Vohra, op. cit. 5-6.).
In Bangladesh this is very likely to occur in the event of large-scale irrigation being introduced. Perennial water-logging of some depression sites developed in the G-K Project area. That resulted from excessive seepage losses from neighbouring irrigation channels located on permeable floodplain ridges. The fact that permeable soils are widespread on all the floodplains shows that this problem is likely to be extensive. An F.A.O. expert has stated
“Most of the country (i.e. of Bangladesh) is comprised of the combined delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers. This area can be divided into six broad physiographic types. (a) Active and very young floodplains along the major river channels (700000 ha). (b) Young and old meander floodplains of the major river (5.7 million ha). (c) Young and old estuarine floodplains (3.1 million ha), mainly east of the Meghna river.
(d) Tidal floodplains occurring mainly in the south-west, locally in the south- east. About 400 000 ha is non-saline; about 600 000 ha is saline. (e) Alluvial fans and piedmont plains (1.1 million ha). (f) Feats (200 000 ha) occur most extensively in the transition zone between the Ganges meander and tidal flood- plains in the south-west”. (H. Brammer's article in (1983) vol. 8 Water International pp. 75-76.).“On all floodplains, there is a characteristic pattern of permeable, usually loamy, soils on the highest parts and impermeable usually
clay soils on the lower parts. The proportion between light and heavy soils differ both between major floodplains and within them. The most extensive soils are Fluvacucntic Haplaquepts (Eutric and Calcaric Fluvisols in the FAO/Unesco
system). Because of the seasonal cycle of flooding and drying out, soil development is usually rapid. The seasonal changes cause rapid development of structure (where textures are suitable) and the development of iron oxidation mottles. Alluvial stratification is quickly broken up by biological activity
down to the permanently saturated zone. Biological activity (roots, soil fauna) also increases subsoil porosity, aeration, permeability and moisture holding capacity. On the other hand, cultivation tends to destroy topsoil structure and to create a slowly permeable ploughplan (sic), especially in soil deliberately puddled for transplanting rice" (H. Brammer's article in (1983) vol. 8 Water International pp. 75-76.).
The above statement of the character of the soil ought to warn the planners of the risk of water-logging in the event of extensive irrigation being introduced.
(d) Irrigation and Problems It Creates
Some authors with the intimate knowledge of the situation of irrigation in the Indian part of the Punjab have observed.
“However efficient an irrigation system may be, a slight disturbance creates ecological imbalance to such a degree that the environmental stresses develop invisibly, and finally the system explodes with unexpected fury. The first civilisation of Mesopotamia ...which was once a legendary region of fertility throughout the world, has vanished owing to improper harnessing of its river waters and lack of proper drainage. In Iraq ...because of poor drainage, unused irrigation water builds up towards the surface and has caused water-logging and salinity. China ...has also suffered from salinity, and tens of millions of hectares are barren as a result. In the Euphrates Valley of Syria ...one-fourth to one-half the total area has been rendered unfit for cultivation by soil salinity and water-logging. In the Jordan River Valley, 10% of the project area has been affected. In Iran, the majority of irrigation lands are saline. Similar damages have occurred to cultivated areas in different countries, such as the Patagonian region of Argentina, North Western Mexico ...and the Imperial and Coachella valley of California ...Pakistan ...whose Indus plain is one of the largest irrigated regions on earth, has also been subjected to ecological imbalances. Floods have occurred more frequently during the last two decades and reservoirs are silting up more rapidly. Salinity has also increased owing to the use of saline groundwater for irrigation "by installing deep tubewells".
“The likely stresses in an irrigation system are water-logging due to seepage from canals, salinity due to water-logging, growth of aquatic weeds in the channels, tanks, and drains, pollution of sub-surface and surface waters, lowering of the groundwater table beyond optimum limits due to excessive installation of tubewells, etc. Disturbance of any natural system creates stresses resulting in ecological imbalances" [Dhillon, Singh and Kumar, "Stability of the Irrigation System in the Indus Basin" (1981) vol. 6 Water International 83. This author most gratefully acknowledges that much of.. the information on irrigation problems in the India sector of the Punjab used in this work has been obtained from the article by Dhillon, Singh and Kumar].
In the Indian part of the Punjab the following problems have arisen. These experiences are likely to be repeated in Bangladesh which it will be well-worth for the planners to bear in mind.
(i) Seepage Losses.
With the construction of the big canal system which commenced from 1859 and continued well after 1950 the area under irrigation increased from 1.1. million ha in 1946-47 to 2.5 million in 1976-77. However, the water table started rising due to seepage from the unlined channels and losses up to 17% from the main and branches canals, 8% from distributaries and 21% from water courses were taking place. This resulted in severe water-logging, increased salinity and alkalinity problems in the command areas. Following the Report of the Second Irrigation Commission, 1972 the work of lining the irrigation canals was taken up. As a result seepage losses have considerably decreased but not al together eliminated.
(ii) Water-logging
Owing to excessive rains, flooding and seepage a large area of the Punjab was water-logged. By 1960, about one-fifth of the total annually cultivated area of the region was severely affected. To check the situation a large number of shallow tubewells were installed. As a result the area covered by tubewell irrigation increased considerably after 1960 but the water table has been lowered in most of the area of the Punjab state. The area under water-logging decreased from 13.9 million ha in 1961 to 7.8 million ha 1973. Surface drains have played a part in reducing this size.
(iii) Soil Salinity
Apart from water-logging, evaporation can cause salinity. If the evaporation rate is equal to the irrigation volume then the salts dissolved in the water will accumulate in the soil. These may become so concentrated that crops fail to grow. This probably caused the decline of the Assyrian and Babylonian civilisations. Soil salinity has proved to be much harder problem to deal with as the Indian experience shows:
1. Table 1. Seepage losses from lined and unlined channels
Canal system
Seepage losses
Cumecs per million m2 of wetted surface
unlined
lined
Bhiwanigarh Distributory system
1.36
0.27
Phool Distributory system
1.78
0.43
Kat Bhai Distributary system
1.69
0.40
Table 2. Yearwise area under salinity and water-logging (million hectares)
Year |
Salinity |
Water-logging |
1960-61 |
47.0 |
13.9 |
1966-6 |
51.8 |
11.6 |
1967-68 |
49.9 |
11.5 |
1968-69 |
49.3 |
11.1 |
1969-70 |
48.3 |
10.7 |
1970-71 |
45.1 |
10.1 |
1971-72 |
44.0 |
9.3 |
1972-73 |
42.1 |
7.8 |
Steps taken in the Indian part of the Punjab to remedy the situation included
leaching and changing the cropping pattern. Crops such as rice and berseem which
require large quantities of water were introduced.
This author's proposal for dealing with Pakistan's problem of salinity was as follows:
“ … Pakistan's participation in these proposals could include measures to deal with current salinity. Thus a drainage scheme could direct flow of saline water to specific centres where the water could be drained of salt which could be utilised for industrial purposes. Thus in the United States important industries have grow from salt beds that underlie the upper Ohio Valley. By electrolytic process this is separated into various chemicals especially chlorine. This sustains industries producing vitamin pills, dyes, sulfa drugs; also it is used in purifying water (See The National Geographical Magazine, February 1950, pp. 179-80.). Alternatively a salt lake could be created where solar energy could be transformed into electricity as it is done in Dead Sea in the Middle East" (M.A. Fazal in his article in (1982) Asian Studies at pp. 69-70.).
One way of learning to live with salinity would be to introduce crops that can withstand salinity much better (See K. Atkinson "Saline Water irrigation" ( 1972) vol. 57.Geography 244.).
(iv) Pollution of Water (On pollution of rivers see Robert Pritchett, River Life (1972) chapter entitled "Man's Abuse of Rivers".)
Excessive use of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, urbanisation and the sewage discharge from cities are causing pollution of the waters of the rivers. Industries including those particularly noted for their pollution characteristics such as sugar, distillery, tanning, textile, dyeing and fertilizers contribute to pollution as their waste waters are discharged into the rivers, through drains.
The waters of these drains contain a good deal of sediments,
phosphates, organic matter, calcium and magnesium. These ingredients could be
useful for irrigation because of their manurial value. The water authorities
could process these waters so that they may be used by the farmers. The drains
carrying polluted water should be lined to prevent their contamination of the
ground water owing to seepage. These measures ought to be coupled with control
and treatment of toxic material discharged into the water.
(v) Aquatic Weeds
One of the consequences of pollution of water may be the growth of aquatic weeds. Provided sufficient oxygen is present in the water the sewage is quickly broken down by bacteria leaving mainly nitrates and phosphates which plants utilise. This has been experienced in the drains and silt-free irrigation systems in the Indian part of the Punjab. Weed-infested drains cause flooding and water-logging. In the case of irrigation channels, weeds reduce carrying capacity and enhance seepage and evaporation losses. Techniques developed for dealing with this problem ought to be applied bearing in mind their pollution effects.
(d) Effects of Dams, Reservoirs, Embankments etc
It is hoped that the proposed Master Plan on utilisation of water resources will not simply concentrate on engineering measures such as re-enforcement of bunds, building of reservoirs and distributaries and embankments on river banks. Stress ought to be placed on sound land management, restoration of ecological balance and soil conservation measures. Utilisation of water resources ought to be viewed as a means to an end, the end being a sound policy on good soil management. Experience in India on this matter ought to drive home the appropriate lessons to the policy-makers and planners in Bangladesh.
Emphasis on raising of embankments in India without adequate measures for the restoration of ecological balance in the catchment areas has led to increased siltation of rivers and reservoirs. In several cases river beds are now higher than the ground level in their vicinity. Indiscriminate use of land along the river banks has also resulted in the formation of ravines and gullies. Ravine formations are estimated to have damaged about 3.67 million hectares in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujrat, Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. Nearly 2.3 million hectares have been rendered almost useless on the banks of the Chmnbal, the Yamna, the Mahi and some other rivers (Times of India, September 22, 1978).
The problem of floods in the Brahmaputra is assuming serious
proportion chiefly because of heavy silting and large-scale land erosion every
year. Flood control needs to be tackled on a long-term basis.
Since forest lands constitute the bulk of the river valley catchments in India
and exercise material influence on soil stabilisation, stream flow, the management
of forest lands will have to be linked with watershed management programme.
Collaboration and concerted action on the matter between India and Bangladesh are called for.
The main weakness of the India Water resource development programme
resulting in colossal loss of agricultural land has been put down to inadequacy
of soil conservation measures particularly in the catchment areas. During the
first four five year plans and the subsequent annual plans soil conservation
techniques were applied to only about 11,000 sq. km of catchment areas against
the total of 1.5 million sq. km. covering 59
major river valleys. (Times of India, September 22, 1978). The afforestation
programme had been going on at snail's pace.
Indeed the problem extends into Nepal. The (London) Times of June 19, 1982 reported
'I... dawn reveals drama, of a people steadily tearing their country to pieces and heading for a desperate trouble. There is difficulty in finding anyone with a shred of optimism about what is happening to the land in Nepal. There is not enough food being grown and not enough firewood to cook it on. Population growth is out of control and it is estimated that it will double from the present 14 million in 27 years. The forests are being steadily cut to provide more land for' crops and more wood to burn. The levelling of the trees leads to the crumbling of the land, to landslide, the silting of the rivers and floods. The soil of Nepal is being sluiced away to the Bay of Bengal... About four-fifths of Nepal's people are subsistence farmers and in the hills they are forced increasingly to attempt cultivation on the steepest of slopes. Soil fertility and crop production are falling. In a report to the Government, Mr Manmohan Joshi, Head of the Soil Conservation Departmen in Katmandu, says 'The forces of ecological distortion are building up rapidly and visibly. Each year 240 million cubic metres of soil are carried away by Nepal's four major rivers ... the most precious export without any return. The mountainous region may reach a point of no return in 20 years. ...In trying to make up what had been lost Nepal has come nowhere near the tree planting targets it has set."
A comprehensive land and water policy has to recognise the importance of afforestation and proper land-use management, not ignoring aspects like clearing of river beds and improving drainage work. Failure to adopt such a comprehensive policy could inter alia increase the risk of excessive flood. Extensive irrigation systems could raise the ground water level which combined with heavy rainfall during the monsoon and high river flow would cause excessive flood. This is confirmed by the impact of Farakka barrage on the flood situation in West Bengal and North India. As a result of Farakka diversion within India, the level of ground water has risen considerably above the normal in West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. With the arrival of the monsoon the already high level of ground water rises very rapidly thereby causing frequently devastating floods in West Bengal and North India. Other ill-effects of Farakka diversion on India resulting from this phenomenon of rapidly rising of ground water level have been water-logging and salinity in parts of West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, apart from causing erosion of river banks extensively, displacing thousands from their habitation -erosion that has significantly added to the silt load of the Hoogley river. This has increased the silting up of the Hoogley river.
What has happened to the Ganges basin owing to Farakka may happen elsewhere. That it is likely to happen in Bangladesh if the ground water level rises owing to extensive irrigation works has been confirmed by-the observation of an F.A.O. expert who has said recently
"The rapid leaching of most floodplain topsoils confirms field observations that most river and estuarine floodplains are not flooded by river water. They are flooded with rain water or the raised ground water table derived from the heavy monsoon rainfall which is ponded on the land by high monsoon river levels" (H. Brammer, (1983) vol. 8 Water International p. 76).
Ironically it is the Farakka barrage (which was built to save Calcutta port from being silted up by way of flushing the Hoogley river) (D. Mookerjea, "Farakka barrage project : A Challenge to Engineersl (1975) vol 58, The Institution of Civil Engineers: proceedings 67 (U.K.)) which has become destined to ensure that Calcutta port will not survive. The reason for this is as follows: The rate of deposition of silt accelerates rapidly, at a point where the silt-free fresh waters of the rivers mix with the saline and silty tidal waters of the sea. The Farakka barrage has ensured that during the fair weather season i.e. during the months of October –May an increased flow of fresh water from the Hoogley will mix with the saline and silty tidal waters from the Bay of Bengal. As a result along the entire length of the tidal reaches of the Hoogley which embrace the Calcutta port the rate at which the silt is deposited in the river bed has been rapidly accelerated. The Hoogley is a tidal river. This phenomenon has not only made it virtually certain that the Calcutta port will not survive; it is also threatening the newly created port of Haldia. This is the nature’s way of retaliating against man's interftrence with its process. The history of the Rhine diversion in Europe beginning with the construction of a dam in 1891 is full of such lessons where engineering measures to divert the course of the river/proved to be self-defeating. (E.M. Yates, "The Development of the Rhine" Publ. Inst. Brit. Geogr. No.32. (1963); Encyclopaedia Britannica (1973) vol. 19, pp. 261-264).
WATER UTILISATION AND Rural Development: A MODEL RECOMMENDED
An F.A.O. expert has recently pointed out that the main defect of the Master Plan for water development drawm up by the East Pakistan Water and Power Development Board in 1964 was that it was too narrow in concept and focus. "The Master Plan is primarily a civil engineering plan. It is not an agricultural development plan" (H. Brammer ,1983) vol. 8 Water International pp. 77-78). He concluded.
"Where embankment projects are undertaken primarily to increase agricultural production, they should be regarded primarily as agricultural development projects rather than primarily as engineering projects. That implies (inter alia) that ...soil scientists, agronomists, agro-economists and agricultural extension specialists should be given a more responsible role in project identification, design, appraisal and implementation" (H. Brammer, (1983) vol. 8 Water International P.81. See also Jannuzi and Peach, (1980) The Agrarian Structure of Bangladesh: an impediment to development, (Westview Press, Boulder, Go. U.S.A.). ).
This author would endorse these views but would go a step further and argue the case for an integrated approach to development of water resources. Water use ought to be regarded as a means to bring about all round development of the rural areas. Well over 75% of the population of the countries of the Indian Sub-continent live in the rural sector of the economy. An appropriate model for the development of this sector has yet to be found. This author's proposal for such a model would be as follows.
Bangladesh has recently decided to upgrade the Thanas under its plan for decentralisation of administration. The upgraded Thanas could be taken as the units for rural development. (a) water, (b) power, (c) transport and communication, (d) technical know-how (in the sense of the technical manpower and professional class moving to the Thanas from the Universities and the cities and towns as well as the educational institutions in each Thana being sufficiently upgraded to produce the manpower with the required degree of know-how) -all playing their part in an integrated framework to achieve the take off’ of the rural economy.
There would be complete integration of trade, industry and agriculture within each Thana. (Bangladesh is divided into 493 Thanas ) Most of the amenities (including social amenities such as good housing, educational institutions, recreational facilities etc to attract professional manpower from the cities to the rural areas) that are available in the urban centres should be brought to the villages. Opportunities for employment should be created in the rural sectors themselves. The Thanas ought to be connected with each other and with the towns and cities with good transport and communication. To a large extent, the contrast between the cities and the villages in terms of amenities will disappear. This would halt the drift to the cities of the deprived population and pave the way for a solution to the main malaise in which most of the countries of the Third World including those of the Indian Sub- continent find themselves viz. increasing impoverishment of the rural sector and excessive concentration of the population in the cities in slums, bad housing and appalling living conditions.
The model for development advocated here is equivalent to but not identical with the Commune System to be found in the socialist countries including China. Utilisation of water resources is seen here as an integral part of the overall rural development -water use being integrated with the overall process of development. Water use is not an end in itself. It is a means to an end.
5. Concluding Remarks
Water utilisation is crucial to Bangladesh. Bangladesh currently produces 14-15 million tons of food grains annually. The population of 92 million (in 1983) needs an estimated 14.5 million tons with a further 1.5 million tons to cover seeds, feed and waste. That leaves a deficit of 1-2 million tons. If the country's population continues to grow at the current rates -doubling in about 30 years by the year 2000, it is estimated that annual food grain production must increase to 25 million tons to satisfy the population's consumption needs (The figures quoted here were taken from H. Brammer's article in (1983) vol. 8 Water International 74.). An appropriate framework of water utilisation would be the key to this increase in food production.
That appropriate framework would, in the view of this author, have to be an integrated one including agricultural development, overall economic development of the rural sector and ecological protection. This author has repeatedly expressed the view that collaboration on the matter between the countries of the Indian Sub-continent would be not only desirable but necessary and that such collaboration ought to take place through a joint machinery established by the Departments of Environmental Protection of the Governments concerned and not through the Ministries of Irrigation for whom water use is an end itself and not a means to an end. (M.A. Fazal (1982) Asian Studies 67.)
