Seven Years' War
A famous European war which lasted from 1756 to 1763. As the result of a war with Prussia Maria Theresa of Austria had to cede Silesia to Frederick the Great. With a view to recover her lost territory she concluded an alliance with Russia, secured the support of Poland and Saxony, and attempted to form a closer union with France. In the meantime war broke out between France and England (1755), and George II., in order to protect his German states, concluded an alliance with Prussia, while France agreed to aid Austria against Frederick
Being informed of these negotiations Frederick resolved to anticipate his enemies. In August 1756 he invaded Saxony, occupied the chief towns, and compelled the Saxon army to surrender.
This step created a stir in the European courts, and in 1757 Austria, Russia, France Sweden, and the German Empire were in arms against Frederick, while he had no ally but England and a few German States. In 1757 Frederick marched into Bohemia and gained a bloody battle at Prague (May 6th). Soon after, however, the Austrians under Daun defeated Frederick at Kollin (June 18), relieved Prague, and forced the Prussians to retreat to Saxony and Lusatia. The French army, after defeating Frederick's German allies (under the Duke of Cumberland) at Hastenbeck, united with the imperial forces; Frederick met them at Rossbach and routed both armies on Nov. 5th. He then hurried back to Silesia, which was occupied by the Austrians, and vanquished a superior army under Daun at Leuthen (Dec. 5), thus recovering Silesia. While Frederick was thus occupied in the south and west, his general Lehwald had successfully repelled the Swedes and Russians on the north and east. The next campaign was opened in Feb. 1758 by Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, who, at the head of Frederick's allies, opposed the French in Lower Saxony and Westphalia. He defeated the French at Krefeld in June, and ultimately drove the enemy behind the Rhine. Frederick, driven out of Moravia, defeated the Russians, who had advanced to Zorndorf, in Brandenburg, was defeated in turn by Daun at Hofkirchen, but before the end of the year drove the Austrians from Silesia and Saxony. Louis XV. and his mistress, the Marchioness de Pompadour, were bent on continuing the war, and concluded a new alliance with Austria, Dec. 30, 1758.
Frederick, however, had also obtained a new treaty with Britain, which promised him a large yearly subsidy. The new campaign was opened in March 1759, Prince Henry, Frederick's brother, marching into Bohemia, where be dispersed the hostile forces, and captured immense quantities of military stores. The Russians, having defeated the Prussian general Wedel near Zullichau (July 23), advanced to Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Frederick hastened to meet them in person, and had already defeated them at Kunersdorf (Aug. 12) when his victory was snatched from him by the Austrians under Laudon, who inflicted on him a defeat such as he had never sustained before. Frederick's position was now extremely precarious. The Russians were victorious in his hereditary states, Daun was in Lusatia with a large army, and Saxony was overrun by the imperial troops. In the west Frederick's allies had been more successful. On Aug. 1 Ferdinand gained a splendid victory at Minden over the French troops under Contades and Broglio. On the same day his nephew defeated the French at Gohfeld, and they were driven over the Lahn on one side and over the Rhine on the other. The Swedes also, who, after the battle of Kunersdorf invaded Prussian Pomerania, were driven by Manteuffel and Platen under the cannon of Stralsund. The campaign of 1760 seemed at first to forebode ill success to Frederick. While he himself was engaged in Saxony Fouqué suffered a defeat in Silesia, in consequence of which the Austrians occupied the whole country. Frederick thereupon gave up Saxony in order to recover Silesia. On the 15th August he defeated Laudon at Liegnitz, by which he effected his purpose of recovering Silesia. He then returned to Saxony and attacked the imperial forces at Torgau, on the Elbe (Nov. 3), defeated them in a bloody engagement, and went into winter quarters in Saxony. The Russians also were forced to retire to Poland, and Ferdinand defeated the French at Marburg (July 31). In the campaign of 1761 the operations of Ferdinand of Brunswick and the French on the Rhine consisted of alternate advances and retreats, and the Russians and Austrians were so enfeebled that they failed to make any impression on Frederick's remnant of an army. In the campaign of 1762 the French were defeated (June 24) at Wilhelmsthal, and Cassel surrendered to the allies on Nov. 1. Two days after this the preliminaries of peace between Britain and France were signed, and the peace itself was confirmed at Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. Alter a short negotiation Frederick concluded a peace with Austria and Saxony at Hubertsburg (Feb. 15), by which he retained Silesia.
The war in Europe was accompanied by war by sea and land between the French and British abroad, the result of which
was to give Britain a decided superiority over France both in America and India
The immediate occasion of this war was an offer made in June, 1870, by General Prim, then at the head of affairs in Spain, of the crown of that country to Leopold of Hohenzollern, a prince belonging to the reigning house of Prussia. The government of Napoleon II. demanded of the King of Prussia that he should forbid the candidature of the prince, and when the prince voluntarily retired from his candidature, still insisted that this renunciation should be formally made by the king, and a guarantee given that the candidature would not be revived. This demand was refused, and a formal declaration of war by France against Prussia was received by Count Bismarck, the Chancellor of the North German Confederation, on the 19th of July. The French were the first in getting their troops to the frontier; but it soon became manifest that instead of being in a complete state of readiness for war, as the minister of war had declared, the French army was defective in almost everything essential to the equipment of an army.
In Germany everything formed a complete contrast to this state of matters. Each section of the army was completely
organized in the head-quarters of the district which it occupied in time of peace, and was only sent to the frontiers
after being furnished with everything it required. In addition to this Prussia, against which country alone the
war had been declared, was not only joined, according to treaty, by all the states of the North German Confederation,
but also by those of the South, upon whose neutrality, perhaps even upon whose alliance, Napoleon and the French had counted.
The German forces were divided about the end of July into three armies, one of which, known as the First Army,
had its head-quarters at Trèves under General Steinmetz; another of which, known as the Second Army, occupied
the Bavarian Palatinate under Prince Frederick Charles; while the Third Army, under the Crown-prince of Prussia,
was stationed in Northern Baden. The commander-in-chief of the whole forces was King William of Prussia, who was
supported by a staff of general officers, with Von Moltke at their head. The French army, under Napoleon himself,
had its head-quarters at Metz, and two advanced divisions were stationed on the borders of France and Germany,
the one in the north on the Saar, under General Frossard, the other further south at Weissenburg, under General
Douay. The victories of the Third Army, under the crown-prince, at Weissenburg (Aug. 4) and at Worth (Aug. 6),
and of the first and second armies at Forbach (Aug. 6), put the French army in retreat along its whole line, the
southern half in the direction of Nancy, and the northern of Metz. The northern army under Bazaine was overtaken
by those of Steinmetz and Frederick Charles on the 14th of August, when an engagement at Courcelles took place,
in which the Germans were again victorious. This was followed by the battles of Vionville, or Mars-la-Tour, and
Gravelotte, the result being that Bazaine withdrew his army under the protection of the fortifications of Metz,
which was now surrounded by an army under the command of Prince Frederick Charles.
Meantime the Crown-prince of Prussia had advanced as far as Nancy, and was there awaiting the result of the battles around Metz. He had still the army of MacMahon to deal with, which had now reached Châlons, where it had been reorganized and strengthened to such a degree that the army of the crown-prince was no longer able to cope with it unaided. Accordingly, out of three corps d'armée belonging to the second army, a new army was formed, which was afterwards called the army of. the Meuse, and was placed under the Crown-prince of Saxony. About the 20th of August these two armies set out on parallel routes in the direction of Châlons in order to engage the army of MacMahon, which it was expected would now retreat on Paris. Instead of this, however, Count Palikao, minister of war at Paris, issued an order to Marshal MacMahon to strike northwards to the Belgian frontier that he might thence make a descent upon Metz and relieve Bazaine. Or the 27th of August, at Buzancy, an advance detachment of cavalry belonging to the army of the Meuse dispersed a body of French chasseurs, and on the days immediately succeeding a number of engagements and strategic movements ensued, the result of which was that on the 1st of September the army of MacMahon was surrounded at Sedan by a force of overwhelmingly greater numbers, and on the following day both army and fortress surrendered by capitulation. On this occasion 50 generals, 5000 other officers, and 84,000 private soldiers became prisoners of war. Among these was Napoleon III, who was unexpectedly found to have been present with the army of MacMahon. He had a personal interview on the day after the battle with King William of Prussia, who assigned to him Wilhelmshohe, near Cassel, as his place of residence during his captivity.
One of the first consequences of this defeat was an outburst of rage on the part of the Parisians against the Napoleon dynasty, which on the 4th of September was declared by Gambetta and some members of the corps législatif belonging to the Left to be dethroned. The same members then proclaimed a republic. A government of national defence was formed, at the head of which was placed General Trochu. Meantime France had no available army which was strong enough to stand its ground for an instant before the German armies that were now enabled to continue their march upon Paris. The investment of the city was completed on the 19th of September. It was not till about the beginning of October that the French were able to organize a new army after the loss of that of MacMahon, and by the beginning of November the war in the open field had been resumed in different centres: but the capitulation of Metz with the army of Bazaine (28th Oct.), and that of Strasburg (27th Sept.), had set free for further operations large numbers of German troops, and the utmost efforts of the French could not relieve Paris.
The city had held out for a much longer period than even the most sanguine on the side of the French had at first
expected that it would be able to do. Sallies were made at intervals by the garrison (Oct. 12, Oct. 21, &c.;
Jan. 13, 14, 15, and 19), but not sufficiently often or in sufficient strength to have any decisive effect. On
the failure of the last sally, which took place on the west side from Mont Valérien on the 19th of Jan.,
it was seen that a capitulation was inevitable. On 21st Feb. M. Thiers, head of the executive, arrived at Versailles
along with a diplomatic commission, and preliminaries of peace were signed at Versailles on the 26th of Feb., and
accepted by the assembly at Bordeaux on the 1st of March.
The principal terms were the following:-
| 1. | That France should cede to Germany one-fifth part of Lorraine, including Metz, together with the whole of Alsace |
| except Belfort and the surrounding district. | |
| 2. | That France should pay to Germany a war indemnity of five milliards of franca (£200,000,000). |
| 3. | That certain departments of France should remain in the occupation of the Germans, and should not be fully evacuated |
| until after the payment of the whole indemnity. |
