Language and Literature - Down to the 15th century the term Scottish language meant the Gaelic or Celtic tongue; the language of lowland Scotland being looked upon as English, which indeed it was and is - Northern English, with certain peculiarities of its own. The term Scottish came to he applied to it as possessing these peculiarities, and as having a somewhat distinctive literary use. This language has been divided into three periods. During the early period, extending to near the end of the 15th century, there was little difference between the language of Scotland and that of England north of the Humber. In the middle period. which extended to the Union, it was influenced in a slight degree by the Gaelic, and an a more pronounced manner by French and Latin, consequent on the French alliance and the revival of learning. During the modern period the language, as used in popular poetry, &c., has been to a considerable extent affected by modern literary English, though the genuine vernacular may still be heard in many districts with dialectic peculiarities according to locality.

The Sir Tristrem, a metrical romance, doubtfully attributed to Thomas the Rhymer is by some regarded as the earliest piece of Scottish literature, and is generally accounted the earliest specimen of romance poetry in Britain (end of the 13th century). But the first undoubted specimen of Scottish literature is the Bruce of Barbour (about 1375;). Between 1420 and 1424 was, written Wyntoun's Oryginale Cronykil of Scotland, and about 1460 Henry the Minstrel, commonly called Blind Harry, did for Wallace what Barbour had done for Bruce. Another of the poets of this early period is no less a personage than James I. (1394 - 1437), author of the King's Quhair. Christis Kirk of the Grene and Peblis to the Play, long believed to have been productions of James, have to be attributed to some other early poet. Down to the middle at the 16th century four names stand out prominently, viz., Henryson, Dunbar, Gavin Douglas, and Sir David Lyndsay . Minor poets of this period were Walter Kennedy, Sir John Rowll, Quintin Shaw, and Patrick Johnstone. In 1586 John Bellenden, archdeacon of Moray, published the History and Croniklis of Scotland, a translation of Boece's Historia gentis Scotorum, which was also versified by William Stewart, a descendant of the first earl of Buchan. The anonymous Complaynt of Scotland (1548) is of value as preserving the titles of several popular pieces of contemporary literature now lost, and as a piece of early prose. The poems of Sir Richard Maitland (1560) are curious, but his title to remembrance, as well as that of George Bannatyne (1568), rests on their extensive MS. collections of Scottish poetry, the one preserved in the Pepysian Library at Cambridge, the other in the Advocates Library, Edinburgh. With the exceptions of Alexander Scott, Arbuthnot Rolland of Dalkeith, Alex. Montgomery, Sir William Alexander, and Drummond of Hawthornden, about a century and a half now elapses before we come upon the name of any eminent Scottish poet; most of the scholars of that period, such as Major and Buchanan, addressed themselves to the world at large and wrote in Latin. We have, however, vernacular prose works of merit in Lyndsay of Pitscottie's Chronicle, and Knox's History of the Reformation. In the third period of the language, when it had become a provincial patois, the first notable name is that of Allan Ramsay (1686 - 1758), author of The Gentle Shepherd, and of numerous shorter pieces and songs. To this same age belongs also nearly the whole of that remarkable body of song known as the Jacobite minstrelsy. The Scottish ballads, ever since the publication of Percy's Reliques, have engaged much attention, and have been carefully collected and illustrated by Sir Walter Scott and other editors. The list of the more prominent successors of Ramsay is closed by the names of Fergusson, Burns, Hector Macneil, Scott, James Hogg, and Tannahill; while the vernacular prose writers may be said to be represented by John Galt, Hogg, Sir Walter Scott George Mac Donald, and others. For the Scotchmen who have won an honourable place in English literature .

Ecclesiastical History. - The religion of Celtic Scotland was Druidism, the priesthood of which seem to have exercised much authority over both chiefs and people, but little is known of their tenets. Towards the end of the Roman occupation Christianity is said to have been introduced among the Southern Pick by. Ninian, (St) but it seems that they were still in a state of paganism when Columba introduced Christianity north of the Forth in the 6th century. Cuthbert (St) was the apostle of the south-east, and Kentigern (St) of Strathclyde. In the 7th and 8th centuries the native church of Scotland came into collision with the church of Rome on the question of Easter, &c., and during this time the so-called Culdees (which see) are first heard of. It was not till the 13th century that the church became completely assimilated to the Western church in the rest of Europe. The ritual of the mediaeval church in Scotland was almost identical with that of the church in England, and the external system of the church - cathedral, parochial, and monastic - was also essentially the same. Monasteries existed as in England, the monastic orders represented being the Benedictines, Dominicans, Franciscans, &c, There were twelve dioceses (thirteen when Orkney was included), but down to the 15th century there was no archiepiscopal or metropolitan diocese in Scotland, though St. Andrews, and next to it Glasgow, had a certain precedence among the others. In consequence of this the archbishops of York often claimed metropolitan jurisdiction in Scotland. In 1472 Andrew (St) was erected into the metropolitan - by a bull of Pope Sixtus IV., and all the Scottish were made suffragan bishop of Andrew (St). Twenty years later Glasgow was also made a bishopric, and hence broils arose between the two sees. For a lengthened period more than half the wealth of the nation was possessed by the clergy, and the bishops and abbots rivalled the first nobles in magnificence.

In the 16th century the corruption and abuses of the church, combined with, purely secular movement of all classes of the community against the rapacity of the clergy, helped greatly to further the spread of Protestant doctrines in Scotland, for preaching which Patrick Hamilton, George Wishart, and several others suffered at the stake. The accession of Elizabeth, and the return of John Knox from Geneva, greatly encouraged the reforming party, and in 1557 a great many of the chief reformers banded themselves together to co-operate for the interests of the reformed faith, and signed what is known as the First Covenant. The party of the reformers was so successful that in 1560 the Scottish parliament adopted the Confession of Faith drawn up by John Knox, the jurisdiction of the pope was abolished, and Calvinistic Protestantism was established as the national religion. The battle, however, was not yet over; Mary's influence caused a partial Catholic reaction; and the proposal of the Book of Discipline to devote the tithes to the support of the clergy and the poor, and the revenues of the bishops and religious houses to the endowment of colleges and schools, met with considerable opposition from the laity, as did also the generally severe disciplinary measures proposed in the same book. The deposition of Mary, and the adherence of the regent Moray, however, strengthened the bands of the reformers. In this early period the church made use of a liturgy. After the death of Knox the conflict between Presbyterianism and Episcopacy began. The latter was favoured by the regent Morton, and for a time both systems coexisted. In 1578 when James VI. assumed the government a second Book of Discipline (still the law of the church) was drawn up, and in 1580 Episcopacy was abolished by act of parliament, and the National Covenant was made the test of orthodoxy. The chief governing power in the church was in trusted to a General Assembly, which met twice a year for twenty years, after which the meetings were annual; this body was composed of officials called superintendents, ministers, and lay commissioners . What has been considered the most essential characteristic of Presbyterian government - the presbytery - was not yet introduced in its present form; but this took place before 1592, when the privileges of general and provincial assemblies, presbyteries, and parochial sessions were ratified by parliament. On the accession of James to the throne of England his energies were devoted to the establishment of Episcopacy; he succeeded is. erecting seventeen sees, and in 1618 the 'Five Articles' of Perth became law.

The measures of his son Charles I. were equally unfavourable to the Scottish Church. On his attempting to introduce a liturgy the National Covenant was recast, and gladly subscribed by thousands of all ranks. An act of the General Assembly held at Glasgow in 1638 abolished the Five Articles of Perth, and Presbyterianism once more superseded Episcopacy. The Solemn League and Covenant of the three kingdoms, after having been approved of by the General Assembly of Scotland, was signed by the General Assembly of Divines at Westminster (which met in 1643) and by the parliament itself. The Westminster Assembly drew up a confession of faith (completed in 1646) which was accepted by the Church of Scotland, ratified by the Scottish parliament, and still is the recognized standard of the Presbyterian churches. The ascendancy of the Independents put an end to the triumph of Presbyterianism and the General Assembly, dissolved by Cromwell in 1653, did not sit again for thirty-five years. On the restoration of Charles II. Episcopacy was again established in Scotland, and about 400 ministers resigned their livings. During the following years occurred the great persecution of the Covenanters. After the revolution of 1688 the General Assembly again met : the Westminster Confession of Faith was ratified and the right of patrons to nominate to benefices was withdrawn. At the union of England and Scotland in 1707, a special statute was passed which secured the Presbyterian form of church government in the latter country. In the year 1712 an act was passed by parliament which restored to patrons their right of presentation to church livings. This statute created much discontent, and led to the secession of various bodies from the Established Church, the first of which (1733) was the communion headed by Ebenezer Erskine, which took the name of Associate Synod. This was followed in 1761 by another secession, the separating body taking the name of the Synod of Relief; and last and most important of all by the disruption of 1843, when the Established Church lost about half her ministers and members . This obnoxious patronage act was modified by 6 and 7 Victoria, cap. Ixi. (lord Aberdeen's Act), and at last in 1874 was finally abolished.

The Church of Scotland has now 1363 parishes, 387 un-endowed churches, preaching and mission stations, and over 626,000 communicants. The income of the church is derived (1) from the teinds, a charge on that portion of the estates of the laity which is burdened with an assessment for the payment of the stipends of the Established Church ministers : (2) a sum of £17,040 paid by the exchequer from church property in the hands of the crown to a number of poor parishes and Highland churches, in addition to an annual gift of £2000 given by the king (who presides by a commissioner at the annual meeting of the General Assembly) to the Highland churches which have been weak since the time of the Disruption: (3) from private endowments, seat-rents, and the liberality of the members. The total collections for the general purposes of the church since 1872, exclusive of the Baird gift of £500,000, have considerably exceeded £6,000,000. Since the passing of the abolition of patronage act the church has increased in general popularity, while a spirit of increased liberality has conduced much to its prosperity. An agitation on the part of a section of the Voluntary churches, for the disestablishment and dis-endowment of the church has been alive for some years.