WARS

Charles succeeded to his fathers war with Spain, and incidentally with the Catholic League and the Emperor in Germany, though no actual declaration of war was ever made with the Emperor. The great Thirty Years' War, of which this was a part vitally affected the Whole policy of the reign, and was one cause of the English Civil Wars.

In 1625 an abortive expedition under Viscount Wimbledon and the Earl of Essex was sent against Cadiz. In the same year English ships co-operated with the French Government against the Duc de Soubise and the Huguenots of La Roehelle, whose rebellion prevented France from acting against Spain and the Empire
In 1626 Christian of Denmark, relying in vain on English supplies, which the quarrels between Charles and his parliament made it impossible to send, was entirely defeated by the Imperialists at Lutter
In 1627 Charles quarrelled with France, and sent the first abortive expedition to aid La Rochelle
In 1628 the second expedition to help La Roehelle failed, and after the murder of Buckingham the third expedition failed, and La Rochelle surrendered.

The Imperial generals overran all North Germany and the mainland of Denmark, but Stralsund made a successful defence against them.

In 1650, after the dissolution of his third parliament the king perforce made peace with France and Spain, but English and Scotch regiments still continued to take part in the German War, and the discontent of the Puritan party in England was allayed or exasperated in proportion as the general cause of Protestantism abroad seemed to triumph or be defeated in the hands of the Swedes and Germans.The most important of these events were as follows. In 1630 Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden took up the cause of the German Protestants. In 1631 he defeated Count Tilly at Leipsic; in 1632 he again defeated and killed him at the passage of the Lech, and invaded Bavaria. In the autumn of the same year he barely defeated Wallenstein at Lutzen, and was himself killed in the battle. In 1634 the Imperial troops defeated the Protestants at Nordlingen. In 1635 the Protestant Saxons went over to the Emperor, and the French began their decisive interference in Germany in alliance with Sweden against the Emperor and the Spaniards. Charles, perceiving truly that the war had ceased to be a war of religion, began to intrigue against the French and Dutch, in favour of the retention of the southern Netherlands by Spain, and for the balance of power. The French in return encouraged the resistance of Scotland to his ecclesiastical authority, to keep him occupied at home. In 1638 the French took the German so-called Protestant army of Duke Bernhard of Saxe Weimar into their own service. In 1639 the Dutch, inviolation of English neutrality, defeated a Spanish fleet in the Downs. In 1640 Spain was crippled by the revolt of Catalonia and of Portugal, the latter attaining independence.

The importence of the war to England and Scotland, lay not only in the passions which it engendered and the occasions for quarrel over the raising of money and over foreign policy which it offered. The military training of most of the chief leaders in the civil wars, and of many of the soldiers, was gained in the Low Countries and Germany, and the religious opinions of the parliamentary army were affected by the contact of such as had served abroad with these opinions in Holland, the original seat of some of the sects which became prominent in England. Compare the distribution of the Marian Martyrs in England (supra) and the supporters of the King and Parliament respectively (infra), as an indication of the effects of foreign religious opinion here.

Among the principal leaders in the Civil Wars who had seen service abroad were -
On the King's sMe, the Princes Rupert and Maurice, the Earl of Lindesey, Patrick Ruthven Earl of Brentford and Forth, Sir Jacob Astley, General Goring, Sir Charles Lucas, Sir, George Lisle.

On the Parliamentary side, the Earl of Essex , Sir Thomas Fairfax, Sir William Waller, General Skippon, General Monk, General Massey.

Among the Scots, Alexander Leslie Earl of Leven, David Leslie, the Duke of Hamilton.
Of the two great military geniuses who appeared, one - the Marquis of Montrose had seen very little service abroad, and the other - Oliver Cromwell had seen none at all.

THE CIVIL WARS

The Civil Wars beginning in Charles' reign fell into three main divisions, continuing after the King's death.

First the wars between England and Scotland in 1638-39 and 1640.
Secondly, the Civil Wars from 1642 to 1646, during the whole of which Irish rebellion, begun in 1641, was going on. Thirdly, the renewed war in 1648 in England, continued in the smaller British islands, Ireland and Scotland, to 1651.

In the first of these the Scots almost unanimously opposed the king's ecclesiastical policy, partly upon religious grounds, partly upon national, objecting to a system originated in and supported from England. The French encouraged the Seats and assisted them in bringing back Scotch officers and soldiers from the German war. A cessation of arms was agreed upon at York.
The war broke out again in 1640, and the Seats forced the passage of the Tyne at Newburn. A cessation was agreed upon at Ripon.

THE CIVIL WARS ( Division of Parties )

In Religion, for the King were the people who were not Puritans, both High Churchmen and Broad Churchmen, if we may borrow names which were not used then; also the Roman Catholics
For the Parliament were the Puritans, including those who were in favour of a further Calvinistic reform in the Church, Presbyterians, Sectaries who were not in accord with the old-fashioned Puritan party, and the more intellectual of whom touched the Royalist Broad Churchmen more nearly.
In Race, for the King were the more Celtic parts of the kingdom, Wales and Cornwall, ultimately many of the Scotch Highlanders and the native Irish.
For the Parliament were the purely Teutonic parts of the kingdom as a rifle.
Ins Geographical Distribution, for the King were generally speaking the North and West
For the Parliament the East and South.
In Class. It was not a war of classes but for the King were many country gentlemen, about two-thirds of the nobility and many country people.
For the Parliament were many townsmen and mercantile people, for Puritanism was strong in the larger towns, some influential country gentlemen and nobility, as John Hampden, the Earls of Warwick, Northumberland, Holland, Manchester, Essex, Pembroke, Salisbury, Bedford, Leicester Stamford, etc., and many of the farmers of the East and South.
Roughly speaking the King had with him two-thirds of the House of Lords and one-third of the House of Commons; the Parliament vice versa
The King had with him all the members returned in Rutland, Flintshire, Carnarvonshire, Merionethshire, Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire, Brecknockshire, Caermarthenshire; a majority of those returned in Northumberland, Westmoreland, Nottinghamshire, Cheshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, Herefordshire, Somersetshire, and Cornwall. Durham returned no members, but was chiefly Royalist. The representation of Cumberland, Yorkshire, Monmouthshire, Anglesea, and Glamorganshire was equally divided.
The Parliament had with them all the representatives of London, Middlesex, Essex, Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, and Denbighshire; and the majority of the representatives from all the rest. This, and the distribution of the Peers, applies to the beginning of the war.
The general geographical distribution is plain.
The general objects of the two sides were to possess themselves of as much country as possible, so as to give opportunity to their friends in each district to aid them, to levy contributions and raise supplies, and to cut off a source of supply from the enemy. The King had the further great object of recovering London, which would no doubt have been fatal to the Parliament. They aimed at the King's headquarters at Oxford, the taking of which, though a heavy blow, need not have been so immediately fatal to his cause as the taking of London to theirs.
The campaign of 1642 was marked by the indecisive battle at Edgehill, October 23rd, the match of the King towards London and his capture of Brentford, November 12th, and his retreat to Oxford. Minor operations took place in Yorkshire and many other counties.
1643. The Earl of Essex advanced from London towards Oxford and took Reading, April 27th, but was unable to besiege Oxford, and was harassed by the King's cavalry. Hampden killed in a skirmish at Chalgrove, June 18th.
A Royalist army organized in Cornwall defeated the Earl of Stamford at Stratton, May 16th, Sir William Waller at Lansdown, July 5th, and at Devizes, July 13th. Bristol surrendered to Prince Rupert July 27th.
In the North the Marquis of Newcastle defeated Fairfax at Adwalton Moor, June 30th, and invaded Lincolnshire. The three Royalist armies formed the three sieges of Plymouth, Gloucester and Hull, instead of converging upon London, and failed in all three. Essex, having obliged Charles to raise the siege of Gloucester, was intercepted by the King at Newbury on his return, September 20th, and after a desperate battle got his army through, owing to the failure of the Royalist ammunition.
"Ormond's cessation" in Ireland, to allow troops from Ireland to join the King, September 13th, and the treaty between the Parliament and the Scots, September 25th, gave a
new character to the war, (See Acts and Documents)
1641. The Scots invaded the North in January, and drew off the Marquis of Newcastle from Yorkshire to oppose them. English troops from Ireland landed at the mouth of the Dee to aid the King, and were defeated by Fairfax at Nantwich, January 25th.
The Earl of Forth and Lord Hopton were defeated at Cheriton in Hampshire by Sir William Waller March 29th. Essex and Waller marched upon Oxford, but divided their forces. Waller was defeated by the King at Cropredy Bridge, June 30th. Essex going into the West, was followed by the King, and lost his army, the infantry surrendering in Cornwall, September 30th, the horse cutting their way through, the commanders escaping by sea.
Rupert marching in aid of Newcastle, relieved Newark, and Lathom House in Lancashire, took Liverpool and Bolton, raised the siege of York and joined Newcastle in that city, but insisting on going out to fight was defeated by the combined forces of the Seats, Fairfax and the Associated Eastern Counties at Marston Moor July 2nd. The royal cause was thereby ruined in the North.
The army of the Associated Counties came south to help Waller, and an indecisive battle was fought with the king at Newbury, October 27th. The consequent dissensions among the Parliamentary Commanders led to a New Modelling of their army under Fairfax and Cromwell. A force of professional soldiers strongly impressed with a sectarian character being the result; the old aristocratic commanders, with the Presbyterian interest, being put on one side.
1645. The King marching from Oxford relieved Chester and took Leicester, May 31st, but having divided his forces was caught with inferior numbers by Fairfax at Naseby, June 14th, and utterly defeated, his infantry being cut to pieces. Fairfax marched into Somersetshire, and the Scots after taking Carlisle invaded the Royalist counties on the Welsh border. Bristol surrendered by Prince Rupert Sept 10th. The King's horse defeated on Rowton Heath, near Chester, Sept. 23rd.

THE IRISH REBELION

The native Irish Catholics broke out in rebellion on October 23rd, 1641. The alleged complicity of the King, and the obvious need of an army to be sent to Ireland helped to precipitate civil war in England.

MONTROSE IN SCOTLAND

On the agreement of the Scots to help the Parliament becoming known, 1643, Hamilton, who had undertaken to prevent it by peaceful means, was imprisoned by the King. Montrose, who had before advocated an armed attempt to prevent it repaired to Scotland, and joining a body of Irish who had crossed over to the Highlands, raised the King's standard in 1644, appealing to the hatred felt by neighbouring Highlanders for the Campbells, whose head Argyle was a leader of the Covenanters. The loyalty of the clans was usually in proportion to their proximity to and fear of the Campbells. On the other aide of Scotland the Gordons, though they from jealousy did not cordially co-operate with Montrose, made their neighbours Covenanters, being themselves Royalists. Montrose defeated the Covenanters at Tippermuir, near Perth, Sept. 1st and at Aberdeen Sept. 13th, but was compelled to fall beck into the Highlands. In January,1645, he invaded Argyle's country, and defeated the Campbells at Inverlochy, Feb. 2. He took Dundee, and harried the East Coast, and on May 9th won a victory at Auldearne, on July 2 at Alford, and on August 15th at Kilsyth. By the last battle he became for the moment master of Scotland; but the Highlanders left him to bestow their plunder the Scotch horse returned out of England, and on Sept. 13th surprised and defeated him at Philiphaugh. He maintained himself for about a year in the Highlands, till ordered to lay down his arms by the King.
1646. Fairfax forced Lord Hopton to a convention at Truro March 14th. Sir Jacob Astley, with the last Royalist force in the field, was defeated at Stow-in-the-Wold, March 22nd. On June 10th the King, in the hands of the Scottish army, gave orders for the surrender of the Royalist garrisons.

THE SECOND CIVIL WAR

1648. The failure of the King, Parliament, and Army to come to terms among themselves, and the consequent treaty between the King and the Scots, produced a renewed war, in which English Royalists, Scotch Presbyterians, and many of the more moderate of the old English Parliamentary party were arrayed against the English Army and the more extreme of the Parliamentary party. As the composition of the parties was new, so the parts of the country affected were new, London and the South-East being full of this new Royalist party. It is noteworthy that it was this combination which failed in 1648, which finally triumphed, in 1660, in the Restoration. Now the superior leadership, discipline, and unity of the army was fatal to them.
March 23rd. Colonel Poyer, formerly a Parliamentary officer, declared for the King at Pembroke.
April 9th. Armed riot in London for the King.
April 28th and 29th. Berwick and Carlisle seized by Royalists.
May 8th. The Royalists defeated at St. Fagan's, in Glamorganshire.
May 21st. East Kent rose for the King.
May 27th. The fleet in the Downs hoisted the Royal Standard.
June 1st. Fairfax stormed Maidstone, and Kent was rapidly reduced.
June 3rd. Pontefract Castle seized for the King.
June 13th. The remains of the Kentish force, which had crossed the Thames and joined the Essex Royalists, checked Fairfax at Colchester, but were shut up in the town.
July 4th to 6th. Abortive rising in Surrey.
July 11th. Surrender of Pembroke.
August 17th to 20th. The Scots defeated in Lancashire, at Preston, on Wigan Moor and at Winwick.
August 27. Surrender of Colchester.
Minor Royalist movements had been attempted and failed in North Wales, Herefordshire, Cornwall, Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Suffolk, and Sussex

OFFICIALS.

Lord Chancellors
1625. The Bishop of Lincoln, Keeper, resigned Oct. 30. Sir. Thomas Coventry, afterwards Lord Coventry, Keeper.
1640. Sir John Finch, afterwards Lord Finch, Keeper.
1641. Sir Edward Lyttelton, afterwards Lord Lyttelton, Keeper.
1642. The King, Keeper.

Lord Treasurers
1625, Lord Ley, afterwards Earl of Marlborough.
1628. Sir Richard Weston, afterwards Lord Weston and Earl of Portland. Sir Francis Cottington, afterwards Lord Cottington, Chancellor of the Exchequer.
1635. The Archbishop of Canterbury, the Earl of Manchester, lord Cottington, Sir John Coke, Sir Francis Windebanke,

Commissioners.
1636. William Juxon, Bishop of London. Lord Newburgh, Chancellor of the Exchequer
1641. Sir Edward Lyttelton, the Earl of Manchester, Sir John Bankes, Lord Newburgh, Sir Henry Vane (the elder),

Commissioners.
1642. Sir John Colepepper, Chancellor of the Exchequer.
1643. Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards Earl of Clarendon, Chancellor of the Exchequer. Lord Cottington.

Secretaries of Sate
1625. Sir Albert Morton. Lord Conway. Sir John Coke, vice Morton, Nov. 9th.
1630. Sir Dudley Carleton, afterwards lord Carleton and Viscount Dorchester, vice Conway.
1632. Lord Cottington, vice Dorchester. Sir Henry Vane, vice Coke. Sir Francis Windebanke, vice Cottington.1641. Sir Edward Nicholas, vice Windebanke.
1642. Viscount Falkland, vice Vane.
1643. Lord Digby, vice Falkland. Duke of Buckingham, Lord High Admiral, 1625 - 1628.Sir Thomas Wentworth, afterwards Lord Wentworth, 1628, and Earl of Stafford, 1640, Councillor of the North, 1625, lord President of the Council of the North, Dec., 1628 - 1641, Privy Councillor, Nov. 9, 1629, lord Deputy of Ireland, 1632, Lord lieutenant of Ireland, 1640.
The Earl of Essex, Privy Councillor, Feb. 19, 1641, General of the, Army of the Parlisment 1642 - 1645.
The Earl of Northumberland, Admiral 1636, Chief Commissioner of the Office of Lord High Admiral for the Parliament 1645.
The Earl of Warwick, Admiral for the Parliament 1642.
The Earl of Forth and Brentford, Commander-in-Chief of the King's army, 1642 - 1644.
Prince Rupert, Commander-in-Chief of the Kings army,1644 - 1645.
Duke of Ormonde, Commander-in-Chief in Ireland, 1641, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, 1643 - 1647, 1648 - 1650.Marquis of Montrose, Lieutenant General of the Kingdom of Scotland, 1644 - 1646.
William Lenthal, Speaker of the House of Commons, 1641- 1653.
Sir Thomas Fairfax, General for the Parliament 1645 -1650.
Earl of Manchester, General of House for the Parliament 1643 - 1645.

ACTS AND DOCUMENTS

Dr. Gardiner's Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 1628 - 1660, fills the place for this reign and the Commonwealth, which is filled by Stubs' Select Charters for the period from William I. to Edward I. It is indispensable to all who have not access to large libraries, and useful to them as containing much in a readily-accessible form which is otherwise only to be found scattered through Rushworth's Collections, the Statutes, Parliamentary Histories, and State Papers.
1628. The Petition of Right. Car. I. 3, c. 1. Against the exaction of any gift, loan, benevolence, tax, or such like charge without consent of Parliament; against imprisonment without cause shewn; billeting of soldiers in private houses; and exercise of martial law.
The Petition of Right was intended to deal with the special instances of grievances which had arisen since Charles' accession. It avoided the question of the Impositions (see James' reign) and Tunnage and Poundage, which bad been granted to the King for a year only in 1625, instead of for life, as had been the custom since the accession of Edward IV.
Printed at the end of Stubbs, SelectCharters, and in Gardiner, Const. Documents , page 1.
1628. The King's Declaration on the Articles intended to silence controversy between the Puritan, or Calvinistic, and the Arminian party in the Church. The government, acting in the spirit of the declaration, suppressed controversial books with some impartiality, but the Puritan party justly complained that while both sides were muzzled, one only, the Arminian., was promoted.
Printed at the beginning of the Prayer Book and in Gardiner, Const. Document; 9.
1629. Resolutions on Religion by the House of Commons. Printed in Gardiner, Const. Documents, 11.
Protestation of the House against Arminianism and against the levying of Tunnage and Poundage without Parliamentary consent Printed in Gardiner, Constitutional Documents, 16 These Resolutions of the House shewing an intention of regulating the religious policy of the government, and traversing the contention of the King that, pending the passing of a Tunnage and Poundage Act, he was justified in raising Tunnage and Poundage for the defence of the realm, led to the dissolution and suspension of Parliament for eleven years.
1629. Peace between England and France, on the mediation of the Republic of Venice. Rymer, xix., 86-88.
1630. Peace between England and Spain. Rymer xix 219
By the peace with France, the French claim interfere in the household arrangements of the Queen, Henrietta Maria, was dropped; and Charles I gave up all claim to interfere on behalf of the Huguenots .
By the Spanish peace the relations of 1604 were to be restored, and a vague promise was given in the negotiations that the interests of Charles' sister in the Palatinate were not to be lost sight of.
1633. The Declaration of Sports was issued, in favour of dancing archery, and athletic sports after the time of divine service on Sundays and Holidays. Puritan Justices of the Peace had interfered with them, and the Puritan party was deeply offended at the declaration.
Printed in Gardiner Const. Documents, 31.
1634. The first Ship-Money writs issued to maritime towns and counties for providing a fleet. The maritime counties had been called upon to provide ships for the defence of the country on many occasions - 1626 was the last instance. The payments were trifling in amount and fairly assessed, but the Government's intentions were distrusted, and no actual war was going on, though English commerce needed protection from pirates both Algerine and European.
In 1635 the Ship-Money writs were extended to the inland counties, which was an innovation. The fleet provided by the successive levies fell into the hands of the Parliament when the Civil War began, and formed the body of the fleet with which Blake and others defeated the Dutch and Spaniards under the Commonwealth and Protectorate A specimen Ship-Money writ is printed in Gardiner, Const. Documents, 37.
1638. The Scottish National Covenant was made, in renewal of that of 1580, in defence of the Kirk of Scotland. It avoided any direct mention of Episcopacy.
Printed in Gardiner, Const. Documents, 54.
1640. New Canons framed by the clergy in Convocation, sitting after the dissolution of the Short Parliament. They inculcated Non-Resistance, and attacked the Sectaries. The Convocation also voted money to the King. The oath imposed by the Canons upon beneficed clergy against alterations in doctrine and Government is printed in Rushworth's Collection; iii. 1186. For the Canons themselves see State Papers, Domestic, Charles I. 1640.
The Long Parliament met on November 3rd, 1640, and by the following acts not only did away with the means of unparliamentary government, but established itself as a part of
the government equally irremovable with the King, unless by its on consent.
Car.1.16, c. 1. An Act by which parliaments were to meet every three years at least This Act, often called a Triennial Act is not to be confounded with the Act William and Mary 6 and 7, c. 2, by which parliament was not to sit more than three years.
Car. I 16, c. 7. An Act by which the present parliament was not to be dissolved without its own consent. This Act was suggested by a well-founded fear of a violent dissolution, but was disastrous to a regular settlement of difficulties, in that it erected two indissoluble and supreme powers in the state.
Car. I. 16, c. 8. The Tunnage and Poundage Act, declaring the Impositions (see James' reign), without parliamentary grant, to be illegal, and granting Tunnage and Poundage for a short time.
Car. 1. 16, c. 38. Act of Attainder passed against the Earl of Strafford in the Commons, April 21, 1641, in the Lords April 29. Received the royal assent May 10. The previous impeachment appeared likely to result in some punishment short of death. The most fairly balanced view of the proceedings against Strafford is to be found in Hallam, Const.. Hist. ch. ix. The whole of the proceedings are in Rushworth, vol. viii, which is solely devoted to the Trial and matters connected with it.
Car. I.16, c.10. An Act abolishing the Star Chamber, the Council of the North, the Court of the Marches of Wales, the Court of the Duchy of Lancaster, and the Court of the
Exchequer of the County Palatine of Chester.
Car. 1. 16, a. 11. An Act abolishing the Court of High Commission.
This was the court through which the Ecclesiastical supremacy of the Crown had been chiefly exercised. The House of Commons had already taken to itself Ecclesiastical authority by issuing a Commission for removing ornaments, &c., from Churches. Jan. 23, 1641.
Car. I 16, c. 14. An Act making Ship-Money illegal.
Car. 1 16, c. 20. An Act abolishing fines for refusing to take the order of Knighthood. The government had compelled persons qualified to take Knighthood to do so, in order to secure the feudal dues and services ensuing.
Aug. 13, 1641. Thirteen Bishops impeached by the Commons for their share in the Canons of 1640.
Dec. 1. 1641. The Grand Remonstrance presented. This was substantially a vote of want of confidence in the Government, in spite of alterations in the Ministry. The logical result should have been the removal of the King or the dissolution of Parliament and fresh elections. Both proceedings however were unattainable by lawful mans, since the Act Car. 1. 16, c. 7. (Gardiner, Const. Doc.. 127.)
Jan. 3, 1642. Articles of high treason and other offences exhibited on the part of the King against one member of the House of Lords and five members of the Commons. This was an attack upon the leaders of the one half of the irremovable government by the other half.
Car. 1 16, c. 27. An Act disabling all clergy from exercising any temporal authority. This Act expelling the Bishops from Parliament and from the Council, made a complete revolution in the system of government, as it had formerly existed.
March 5, 1642. The Parliament, contrary to precedent, nominated Lords-Lieutenant of the several counties with power to levy the militia.
June 1, 1642. The Nineteen Propositions sent by the Parliament to the King, demanding practically that the Ministry should be appointed by Parliament and all civil and ecclesiastical authority vested in their hands. The obvious refusal of the King, and many others to agree to this, marks the necessary outbreak of civil war. (Gardiner Const.. Doc. 170.)After the breaking out of the Civil War the following negotiations and treaties mark the attempts at accommodation or the bringing of new forces into play.
Feb. 1, 1643. Treaty of Oxford attempted; the result of a brief experience of war. The Parliament demanded the abolition of Episcopacy, the exclusion of certain persons from office, the appointment of other certain persons to judicial office. (Gardiner, Cost. Doe. 182.) Sept 15, 1643. Ormonde's Cessation in Ireland. A truce with the rebels on the basis of uti possidetis, to enable the English troops employed against them to come over to help the king. (See Carte, Ormonde)
Sept. 25, 1643. The Solemn League and Covenant taken by the Parliament as the basis of an alliance with the Scots. This went further than the Scotch Covenant, in directly stipulating for the abolition of Episcopacy and for the establishment of uniformity of religion in England, Scotland, and Ireland. On this latter account it was distasteful to the rising party of Sectaries in the English army. (Gardiner, Cost. Doc. 187.)
Jan., 1645. The Treaty of Uxbridge attempted. The Parliament desired the abolition of Episcopacy, the taking of the Covenant by the King, permanent parliamentary control of ministerial appointments, parliamentary power of declaring peace and war, a permanent Committee of the two kingdoms to control military affairs; the attainder of 58 persons by name, and of all Papists in arms, and all persons concerned in the Irish rebellion; the permanent exclusion from office and deprivation of the estates of 48 persons by name, and of several large classes of persons.
The King's counter propositions suggested a return to the Constitution as it stood in August, 1641, the preservation of the Prayer-book, a bill for the relief of tender consciences, and a trial by law of all persons against whom offences were alleged. (Gardiner, Cost. Doe. 193 and 204.)
April 3, 1645. The Self-Denying Ordinance passed to exclude all members of both Houses from civil and military office. This Act which was in fact a victory for the Sects and more thoroughgoing revolutionary party, separated again the legislative and executive powers which the Houses had tried to combine. (Gardiner, Const. Doc. 205.)
The overthrow of the King's armies in the field was followed by protracted negotiations between him, the Parliament the Scots, and the Army Leaders for the settlement of the country.
Aug. 1, 1647. Proposals were drawn up by the Army Officers for a redistribution of seats, biennial parliaments, freedom of religion, except with regard to Romanists, and a nominated Ministry for seven years. Though the Proposals were refused by the Parliament as a basis of negotiation they are noteworthy as illustrating the progress of liberal opinion in the Army. (Gardiner, Const. Doc. 232.)
Dec. 26, 1647. The King made an Engagement with the Scots, stipulating, in return for his restoration to the ancient monarchical power, as limited in 1641, for a three years' trial of Presbyterianism, and a subsequent settlement of religion by Parliament and certain Divines, and the suppression of the Sects. This was the agreement which produced the alliance of Royalists and Presbyterians in the war of 1648. (Gardiner, Const., Doc. 259.)
Dec. 5, 1648. The Lords and Commons voted that the King's concessions made to their negotiators at Newport were a sufficient basis for peace By this agreement an Amnesty was stipulated for, the control of the military force was given to the Parliament for twenty years, Presbyterianism was to be established for three years, the bishops excluded from the House of Lords but the episcopal order and property were not to be finally abolished and alienated.
The proposals fell through owing to the Purge of the Parliament by the Army, and the subsequent execution of the King. They are noteworthy as the last constitutional attempt at settlement before military force overthrew Parliament and King together. The original aims of the old Puritan party, the Calvinistic reform of the Church and the control of the government of the King by a Puritan parliament, were never so near being accomplished in a regular legal manner, and failing now, failed entirely.
A complete account of the Newport Negotiation by Sir Edward Walker, clerk to the King, was published in Historical Dissertation relative to King Charles 1. 1705.
The Acts of Parliament above which received the royal consent are printed in the Statutes.
Oct. 24. 1648. The peace of Westphalia closed the Thirty Years War, with which the beginnings of the English Civil War had been so closely connected. If it did not affect England immediately, it had European effects in which England could not long be unconcerned. It closed the era of religious wars, it fixed the limits of Catholic and Protestant rule in Germany, going back to the status quo of Jan. 1, 1624. It formally separated the Netherlands, Switzerland, and French Lorraine from the Empire, slightly increased the territories of Brandenburg (Prussia of the future), and largely aggrandized France and Sweden, on the Rhine and Baltic respectively. France became, in fact, the leading European power.
See Koch et Schoell, Histoire Abregee des Traites, vol i. ch. ii.