POWER AND PARLIAMENT UNDER THE HANOVERIANS
The Hanoverian Succession
In 1714 George, Elector of Hanover, succeeded to the throne of England.
The new king was entirely German in outlook and sympathies; he could not even speak English. So it was that many
former functions and prerogatives of the crown passed to Parliament, and England became a "crowned republic"
dominated by the Lords, for the methods of bribery introduced by Walpole (1721-1742) had robbed the House of Commons
of its freedom and vigour; the country entered a phase that Disraeli called the "Venetian oligarchy"
The parliamentary vote was reduced to a shrinking number of electors: "rotten boroughs" increased vastly
(Old Sarum returned two members, although it had no population and only one non-resident voter.) Wealth was the
keynote of political advancement, and the open sesame to the House of Commons. Rich adventurers purchased their
seats and supported any ministry for the sake of honours and court favour. "The theory of an equipoise in
our legislation had been distorted in practice," says Erskine-May. Yet this was the corrupt system that produced
such rulers as Walpole and the Pitts.
The epoch that followed the Revolution of 1688 saw corruption in every branch of public We. The lawyers had proclaimed
that "Whatever is is right - if it can show a charter." It' s not surprising, therefore, that the greatness
of England in the eighteenth century is to be judged by her individual men, by the unofficial achievement of her
free and vigorous population.
Swift, Wesley, Clive, Captain
Cook, Dr. Johnson and William Blake,
to mention but a few great names, were unhampered by corporate institutions such as the Church, Civil Service or
Universities. But the highly civilized world of which Dr. Johnson and Burke are typical minds, could think only
in terms of politics and literature. They were blind to the changes in the economic structure of the country that
were advancing upon them. Under the Hanoverians, while art, literature and music flourished and the foundations
of the British Empire were being firmly laid, quiet and sell-contented England slid unawares into a seething cauldron
of trouble from which a very different world emerged in due time.
During the reigns of George I and George II the
policy of British Ministers at home and abroad was guided by the necessity of maintaining the House of Hanover
on the throne. This was held to involve the continuance in office of the Whig party, but only conformists to the
Anglican church were to enjoy political power. The Tories, disaffected to the House of Hanover, were unwilling
to take part in a restoration of the Stuarts or the Roman Catholic religion, though they occasionally drank the
health of "the King over the water."
In Scotland there was no such moderation of feeling, and in 1715 there was a Jacobite rising on behalf of the Pretender.
Led by the Earl of Mar in Scotland and the young Earl of Derwentwater in England, the insurgents rode into Lancashire.
But French help was not forthcoming, and the little force surrendered to the royal troops in Preston. It was fortunate
for the stability of the new order that the first effort of the Jacobites had taken place before the Hanoverians
had had time to attain their full measure of unpopularity. The Whig government took active measures and the "Septennial
Act" (1716) was passed, lengthening the duration of Parliament to seven years.
Meanwhile George was anxious to make himself safe on the throne, and with this end in view he aimed at the friendship
of France. In 1717 the Triple alliance was signed with France and Holland to ensure that Spain could. not overthrow
the Treaty of Utrecht, made three years earlier. Two years later (1719) they were joined, in a Quadruple Alliance,
by the Holy Roman Empire. George's friendship with France caused a schism in the Whig party, and from 1721 the
Walpole Whigs, anxious to extend the power of England by peaceful means, obtained office.
George II (1727- 1760).-Walpole remained in office until 1742, when
his incompetent handling of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740 - 1748) caused his fall. His ministry was
one of great importance, for it was one of retrenchment and reform and, in spite of the abuses in the parliamentary
system, great measures were effected. By rigid economy and peace the National Debt was reduced and, though often
"raided," Sinking funds for final redemption started. Walpole's peace policy coincided with the French
policy of peace under Fleury. A strict mercantilist with leanings towards Colonial preference, Walpole aimed at
making the colonies supply Britain with raw materials. His excise scheme, excellent
in itself, was opposed lest an attack on corn protection should follow. He remarked, "Merchants bleat like
sheep, but landowners squeal like hogs," and hence he left the land tax alone.
In Cabinet government, likewise, great steps were made. The need for a chief minister was felt, for the influence
of the king had been entirely removed on the accession of George I. By his supremacy over the other members of
the Cabinet Walpole quickly became England's first "Prime Minister," and he developed the principle of
the joint responsibility of the Cabinet that remains to this day one of the main features of parliamentary government.
In the reign of George III even North and
Addington were universally acknowledged by the title of Prime Minister, though they had little claim to the independence
of action of Walpole or Pitt.
In 1745 a second Jacobite rising took place Charles Edward, "Bonnie Prince Charlie," was a daring and
attractive personality well fitted to lead the Highlanders to victory, and it was a far more formidable affair
than the 15. Before the end of the year Charles had inflicted a complete defeat on the English at Prestonpans and
had reached Derby. But he was compelled to retreat and was routed at Culloden (1746) by the Duke of Cumberland,
who earned the title of "Butcher" for the horrible cruelty he showed after the battle.
Meanwhile Anson, one of the greatest Admirals and naval administrators this country has ever known, had returned
from a four years' voyage round the world (1740 - 1744) to the Admiralty, and the triumphs of the Seven Years'
War (1756 - 1763) were in large measure due to his foresight, clean-handed administration, and the experience gained
on his voyage. This war saw the foundation of the Dominion of Canada .
George III (1760-l820). - In this reign the king once more became an
important factor in English politics. He was determined to recover the power of the monarchy, following the advice
of his mother and of Bolingbroke in "The Patriot King." However, the King found that he could only defeat
corruption by using corruption himself. He was driven first to using Bute; then to balancing the Whig parties,
using Cumberland as mediator; finally to influencing parties unconstitutionally through the "King's Friends"
and private notes of displeasure. As an example of his methods of bribery, he wrote to Lord North (1779), "If
the Duke of Northumberland requires some gold pills for the election it would be wrong not to satisfy him."
Yet the House of Commons still attracted the ablest men in the country and never forgot what it owed to popular
opinion. Thus it was that William Pitt the Younger, one of England's greatest peace and war administrators, came
upon the scene and for nearly twenty years held unbroken office. Had he been in office ten years earlier the American
colonies might never have broken away. As it was he was able to keep England the one bulwark against the power
of Napoleon. the one nation in the world that, by its united effort and the stability of its military and economic
resources, could stem the tide of French aggression and domination. The revolutionary war, the Napoleonic struggle
and the Industrial revolution all occurred within the limits of this lengthy reign, and all the time the ageing
king was on the verge of madness.
A wave of humanitarianism passed over Europe during the reign of George III., typified in England by the Methodist
revival of Wesley and Whitefield, by the reform of the law by Bentham, and of prisons by Howard. Burke was a typical
product of it, for he accused Warren Hastings
of maltreating humanity. Later there was a reaction led by Malthus and Ricardo, and the result was the Corn Law
of 1815, forbidding importation of corn till the price was 80s. a quarter. This meant dear bread, and riots resulted.
In 1819 the Manchester Massacre, which raised such an outcry though only three persons were killed, led to the
Six Repressive Acts.
Finally, the most important event in home affairs was the union with Ireland in 1800. In 1798 an Irish Rebellion
broke out. The chief causes were the land system of oppressive rents, the influence of revolutionary France, the
commercial ruin caused by William III's
legislation and, as Grattan said, "Ireland can never be free while the Catholic is a slave." At Vinegar
Hill the rebels were defeated, and two years later the Union was effected. The four main features were the incorporation
of Great Britain and Ireland into the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland," the establishment
of one parliament to contain Irish representatives, Irish contributions to the Treasury and commercial equality.
