~ Ronald A. Gagliardi ~

The butterfly is a multicultural symbol of the beauty of Nature, appearing in numerous examples of nature scenes of many artistic styles. Butterflies are included as elements of these scenes because they most effectively represent all positive characteristics of Nature.

Logic and prejudice has deprived moths of a similar status. Logically, since most "beauty in Nature" scenes are set in daytime, butterflies are the obvious choice for inclusion. The prejudicial lepidopteral impression that moths are ugly, negative, drab, troublesome (as a clothes pest) and undesirable, overpowers the fact that moths outnumber butterfly species many times.

Butterflies and moths are "Nature's canvases with the gift of flight." Even in death, their mounted beauty can remain intact for centuries. Nature's genetic paintbrushes have "painted" hundreds of thousands bilaterally-symmetrical butterfly and moth works of art. When one considers that both the topsides and the undersides of these specimens are "painted" with equal skill, and that smaller, isolated sections of these masterpieces can be viewed apart from the total specimen, one becomes aware of the virtually unlimited number of artworks in this "traveling" art show of the air.

To some artists, the butterfly and moth only symbolize beauty: the beauty of symmetry, pattern, color, shape. These artists don't require their representations of these creatures to be interpreted. They copy these insects, some as faithfully as the Photo-realists would copy a still life, a figure, a panorama, and only ask the viewer to observe their beauty.

The Abstractive-Naturalists don't even require the viewers to know their subject is a butterfly or moth. They enlarge small, rectangular sections of wing and present them purely as designs. Examples of this usage are represented in Kjell Sandved's

The butterfly symbolizes that which is beautiful and positive because of the widespread and usually valid opinion that they are, indeed, quite colorful and beautiful. This position is strengthened by the opposing symbolism for moths being ugly and negative. Other symbolism assosiated with butterflies (like femininity, spring) also contribute to people's high regard for butterflies.

Although fantastically beautiful moths exist, many of them live in the tropics. Uncommon, beautiful moths such as (the Polyphemus, Cecropia, Luna) do reside in the United States, although commonly encountered moths are small and drab brown. Compare this to the many beautiful butterflies easily observed in almost any part of the world.

For this reason the moth always comes out second-best in a "beauty contest-opinion poll" against butterflies. Coupled with the stigma brought on by the misdeeds of the clothes moth, these little denizens of the closet are responsible for the tarnished reputation of moths everywhere. It is little wonder that the moth has become the unwilling symbol for that which is ugly and negative. Some of the other symbols identified with moths (like insanity) have also contributed to the moth's position of low esteem.

When an illustration or painting desires to convey a fairy-tale or heavenly/etherial quality, artists usually include a few butterflies to augment the overall feeling. Winslow Homer liberally sprinkled butterflies in his illustration "Saint Valentine's Day." Fairies are often pictured with insect wings which are usually those ofbutterflies. Greek and Roman mythology illustrates this in describing the horae; spirits who personified the seasons.

Throughout history, butterfly imagery has been used more frequently in "decorative objects" than most other living organisms. Butterflies are found in similar frequency with imagery of trees, flowers, mushrooms, and owls. Indian decorations have utilized butterfly imagery for centuries.

Items adorned with butterflies are often considered decorative or ornamental. Butterflies don't always have to carry the specific symbolism of nature or beauty. In fact their frequency in non-symbolic decorative usage has caused them to symbolize decoration itself. "Today, an artist will put a butterfly or flower in an illustration just for a filler, a decorative dot of color."

Ancient Mexicans considered the butterfly important enough to dedicate an entire palace to it at Teotihuacan, just outside Mexico City. This palace is called the Palace of the Mariposa.

Teotihuacan is the oldest metropolis in Meso-America, and is the only one to possess a continuous history, from the archaic through to the purely classical period.

Historians do not agree on who the founders of Teotihuacan were; some say the Olmecs, others the Toltecs, but most agree that it was at one time the capital of a highly civilized culture later conquered by the Aztecs, the foremost of the Nahuatal Tribes.

The butterfly represents flame in the symbolism of this culture. Often pictured with the signs for water, it becomes clear that the "vision of Earth as a paradise is based on the dynamic harmony between water and fire." The same concept is exemplified by an image of Tlaloc, god of rain, pictured on a vase bearing a butterfly motif. It is interesting to note that the butterfly is used as symbolic representatives of both the fire and rain god.

Finding no information as to why butterflies symbolize flames indians might have observed the many butterflies whose wings are red, orange, yellow, or combinations of all three colors. A cloud or "cumulep" of fire-colored butterflies taking off from a mud puddle after drinking, could easily be interpreted as being flame-like.

Mexican Indians might also have witnessed a "magna-cumulep" of millions of orange, monarch butterflies migrating to their over-wintering grounds in the mountains near Mexico City. A "cloud of flame" would definitely have entered their minds. The flapping of the wings would even approximate the flickering of the tongues of flame. The moth has also come to be associated with flames, althought not as asymbol of fire.

The butterfly symbolizes female and femininity for a number of reasons. The "painted" beauty of most butterflies is analogous to the "painted" beauty of a high-fashion model replete with her cosmetic finery.In addition, the graceful walk of a woman compares easily with the gliding flight of a butterfly. A comparison between the lithe, beautiful, graceful butterfly with the usually less-showy, stubby moth might be interpreted as a comparison between woman and man; however, the moth has not become synonymous with men and masculinity.

Butterflies and women share the qualities of beauty, grace. Artists often include butterflies to introduce a feminine touch to artwork, product or advertisement.

It may be somewhat difficult to understand why a moth or butterfly could symbolize sensuality, and the symbol does trace a rather circuitous route. Because a moth is physically attracted to light, and because sensuality involves physical attraction, the moth has come to symbolize sensuality; it physically succumbs to seductive light. Also, because butterflies represents femininity, and females are most often associated with the word sensual, the butterfly has also become associated with the word sensual.

The street term for homosexual in Mexico is "Mariposa", meaning butterfly in Spanish. The stereotyped image of a homosexual is that of an effeminate male who tends to keep up his appearance and leads an active social life composed of many appearances at bars and parties. Homosexuals may be called "Mariposas" because of their associations with butterflies symbolizing femininity, the lepidopteral symbol of "social butterfly", and butterfly's habit of "flitting" from flower to flower. In America, the term "Flit" has been commonly used as a synonym for homosexual. I wonder if there is an association with "flamer," another American synonym for homosexuality and the lepidopteral symbolism for flame.

In Funk and Wagnalls' Standard Dictionary of Folklore, and Legend, it states that "to get a new dress all a girl need do is to catch a butterfly of the desired color and crush it between her teeth while muttering a magic formula." The article does not state where this belief is held, or why it is held.

The Zuni Indians feel that the early appearance of butterflies indicates fair weather. Other peoples "say that if the first butterfly is ... yellow [it will be] sunny weather."

In western Pennsylvania, when chrysalides are found suspended from the underside of rails and heavy branches, as if to seek a covering from rain, then extremely wet weather is predicted; if they are found on slender branches, then a spell of fair weather is predicted.

Many of the Indian tribes of North America including the Hopi, Navaho, Zuni, Pomo, Piute, Apache and unnamed pre-historic tribes used butterflies to represent the beneficence of summer. These tribes mainly use the butterfly in their basketry and beadwork.

Associating butterflies with summer is directly related to their abundance during that season. Although adult butterflies are present in each season, they proliferate and are most visible during the summer months.

The Zuni Indians also feel "when the white butterfly comes, comes also the summer."

Butterflies have much to do with the prediction of weather in many cultures. The Zuni Indians of the American southwest believe "when the white butterfly flies from the southwest, expect rain." "Some say that if the first butterfly is white it will be a rainy summer." The reasons for these beliefs are undocumented.

"Some say that if the first butterfly is ... dark [it will be] a season of thunderstorms. This belief appears in Funk and Wagnalls' Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend. No mention is made of the origin of this belief. The probable reason for this superstition associates the dark color of the butterfly wings with the dark color of thunderstorm clouds.

"In south Germany, some say the dead are reborn as children who fly about as butterflies [hence the belief that they bring children]." "In Brunswick if the first one of the season is ... yellow [it is an omen of] birth." It was not stated why this belief holds true.

Death is symbolized by many aspects of lepidoptera. In Maryland, if a white butterfly enters your house and flies around you, it foretells death. In some parts of the country, if a moth lands on the mother of a newborn child, that child will soon die. Italian-Americans view the appearance of a moth in their home as a sign of the impending death of someone they know.

There is a moth in Europe called the Death's Head Sphinx Moth. It represents death to many Europeans because of the clear outline of a skull on its back. Salvador Dali made use of this symbol in an interpretation of a Currier and Ives print, "The Life of a Fireman."

There are numerous other examples of lepidoptera symbolizing death. It is said if a caterpillar measures your entire length or girth you will die. Samoans felt if they captured a butterfly it meant they would be struck dead. In Brunswick, if the first butterfly spotted in spring is a white one, it was an omen of death. The Celts believed that seeing a butterfly flying at night meant death. The chrysalis or pupal stage symbolizes death in Christian art.

In the book, Insect Fact and Folklore, by Lucy Clausen, it is stated that "a butterfly in the house is a wedding sign." The book does not reveal where or why this symbol is prevalent, simply stating it exists. Also, in the Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend, published by Funk and Wagnalls, it mentions that in Brunswick, England, if the first butterfly of the season is variegated, it is an omen of marriage.

The first butterfly seen in a season carries some significance in many countries. In Ruthenia, if the first one is red it announced good health. This symbol may be derived from the belief that rich, red blood is a sign of good health.

"There are many superstitions regarding specific butterflies. Among the Bulgarians a dark butterfly presages sickness." "In Ruthenia, the first one, if white, announces sickness." It is possible that the association of the white color of the butterfly's wings with the pale, white color of someone becoming sick accounts for this belief.

As a metaphor to human aging, butterflies and moths experience a time of "old age" before succumbing to gravity for the last time. Their constant fluttering can leave their wings partially devoid of the powdery scales which provided their former beauty. Brilliant hues give way to faded colors. Collisions with branches leave jagged scars and frayed wing tips. Charles Burchfield painted "Queen Anne's Lace", depicting an "elderly" swallowtail probably Papilio polyxenes.

If the frayed and battered butterfly or moth symbolizes old age, then it follows logically that the recently-emerged adult, resplendant in its newly-acquired, powdery, "suit of lights" represents youth. Its flashy speed in contrast to the feeble flapping of a near-death specimen heightens the image. Butterfly imagery in tandem with a youthful pursuer, also symbolizes youth. Collecting butterflies seems to be an experience of childhood-lost, common to many.

Another characteristic of both moths and butterflies is their fragile nature. Their thin wings and antennae, their powdered color that comes off on your fingertips adds to their stature as a symbol of impermanence.

Lucy Clausen, in her book Insect Fact and Folklore, states it is "bad luck to pull off butterfly wings." She does not reveal where this belief prevails or why it came into existence. Other references can be found. "In Scotland it is unlucky to kill or keep them." In the west of England, it is unlucky to kill the first butterfly seen. In north Hampshire, it is a bad omen to see three butterflies in a group.

Numerous items are named after butterflies: the butterfly stitch, the butterfly valve, the butterfly stroke, the butterfly table, and the butterfly position (in yoga). These names relate to butterflies in form or execution rather than possessing a direct relationship with them.

In the book, Navaho Indian Ethnoentomology by Wyman and Bailey, contains a paragraph relating to the butterfly (or possibly the moth) as some kind of "Big Brother."

"Mixed up [as to sex] on them real classy ones, supposed to be the head of all moths, they don't fly but stay in one place and all moths pile up around him which makes me believe moths have their boss." The Black Swallowtail "is the big boss, he watches Indian." The work did not explain in what reference, whether as a god or as an everpresent insect, or just how this butterfly watched Indians. It is possible that the eyespots or "ocelli" present on the wings aided in the impression the Indians had that this butterfly could watch them.

The Haida Indians of the Pacific Northwest incorporated the butterfly in their mythology. The butterfly is the raven's spokesman at feasts. The raven "was an integral part of Northwest coast life and to separate this bird from the life of the people was inconceivable. It is a never-to-beforgotten bird." "The raven created the world according to the Haida Indians."37 In one Haida totem pole, the butterfly appears beneath the raven and touches the raven's tongue, possibly signifying his spokesman role. The totem butterfly is highly stylized. Indian art gives primary attention to the predominating power which he attached to that animal. The art endeavored to give an impression of action or pictorially indicate what the animal could do. Since birds were a dominant theme in Haida art, their artists perhaps overlooked the most obvious flying abilities of butterflies and (presuming they referred to a butterfly's sucking mouthpiece as a tongue) decided to make an insect with a big tongue a spokesman.

The sorcerers of the Yaqui Indians of Mexico refer to the moth as a symbol of knowledge. In the book Tales of Power by Carlos Castaneda, the moth is such a central figure it is included as the major character on the cover of the book. It is revealed by Don Juan, a Yaqui sorcerer, "knowledge is a moth." He expresses metaphorically that "the moths are the heralds, or better yet, the guardians of eternity," for some reason, or for no reason at all, they are the depositories of the gold dust of eternity. He continues, "the moths carry a dust on their wings, a dark gold dust. That dust is the dust of knowledge." "Knowledge comes floating like specks of gold dust, the same dust that covers the wings of moths." "The moths have been the intimate friends and helpers of sorcerers from time immemorial." Don Juan adds, "Moths are the givers of knowledge and the friends and helpers of sorcerers."

The association of the moth with knowledge coincides with the Blackfoot Indian belief that the butterfly "is a little fellow flying about that is going to bring news to someone tonight." In addition, the Yaqui associates some danger with the moth and its knowledge. The Navaho Indian also feels that "moths and butterflies, especially moths, are very dangerous." The Yaqui feels the powder on a moth's wings is knowledge. The Navaho associates the powder on lepidopteron wings with insanity, the drive to commit incest and the power of an aphrodisiac and the power to run fast. The old adage "a little knowledge is a dangerous thing" is quite applicable here.

In Navaho mythology, the caterpillar of a sphinx moth has a position as a security guard, possibly because it possesses a formidable looking, though harmless, horn on its hind end. "Mythologically, hornworm is the guardian of tobacco, and it is a curious coincidence that one of the common species is the well-known tobacco worm of our culture."

Another caterpillar, a measuring worm, takes part in Navaho mythology. "In the legend of Monsterway measuring worm bridges the spreading canyon (or in some versions, water) so that the Hero Twins may cross over."

The 18 references below describe butterfly and moth symbolism relating to lepidoptera flight found by Ron Gagliardi in his thesis on butterfly and moths in western art and design.

Although there are flightless members of the lepidopteral family, butterflies and moths are synonymous with flying. For this reason they are logical choices for inclusion in mobiles. It is also natural for them to be utilized in kite designs.

Butterflies and moths are characteristically active insects, barely stopping to rest in their search for food or mate. Certain Indian baskets display crenulated designs representing the spasmodic flight of the butterfly as it flits among the flowers. The basket design is symbolic not only with the flight, but also represents the butterfly itself.

A poster advertising the movie "A Free Woman" by Volker Schlondorff, depicts a woman, replete with butterfly wings, emerging from her shell, symbolizing her recent ability to "fly free." In art or literature, a woman with butterfly wings is known as a rhopalocerienne.

Freedom is a concomitant characteristic of flight; Lepidoptera represent aspects of both flight and freedom. The French author and former prisoner of Devil's Island, Henri Charriere, had a butterfly tatooed on his chest. It symbolized freedom to him and gave him his nickname, "Papillon" which means butterfly in French.

Butterfly imagery is used in art to represent the launching of creative thought. The cliche phrase "flights of fancy" is applicable to a fancy butterfly taking flight of growth, creativity, or thought.

The cover of Learning Magazine, February, 1975, depicts a child's double profile representing the two sides of the brain. The analytical side features geometric figures while the creative side is represented by butterflies and a rainbow.

According to a Blackfoot Indian:

The Indians use a cross, similar to a Maltese cross, as a sign for the butterfly. Woman embroider it on buckskin which she ties to her baby's hair in the hope it will induce sleep. George Grinnel, who did some research into this topic before the l900's said "More recent inquiry leads me to suspect that the influence of the butterfly is not confined to dreams, but to sleep as well. " Grinnel also stated, "I have not been able to learn why or how the butterfly brings dreams or sleep. It is stated merely that it is soft and pretty and moves gently. And that if you look at it for a long time you will go to sleep."

Whenever the Blackfoot Indians incorporate a butterfly symbol on one of their lodges "it signifies that the designs and colors adorning that lodge are not those of the mortal Indian who painted them but were shown to him in a dream by the Great Spirit." The same butterfly symbol is interpreted differently depending on where it is placed. If it appears embroidered on a piece of buckskin and tied in a baby's hair it means dream-or sleep-bringer. If seen on a lodge it signifies divine inspiration.

Butterflies also symbolize fairies. According to Funk and Wagnalls' Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend, butterflies "are thought to be fairies in disguise, who steal butter and milk." This same source also states, "Not all butterflies are looked on as good. In much of Europe they are tabu. In parts of Scotland, Friesland and Bosnia, moths are regarded as witches: in Serbia and Westphalia, butterflies are so regarded. In the latter place St. Peter's Day, February 22, is set aside for their expulsion. Children go about knocking on the houses with hammers, reciting rimes and incantations to drive them out of the houses.

One reason butterflies and moths may be linked symbolically with fairies and witches is all have the ability to fly. The ability each has to change form may also enter into the symbolism.

"Butterflies in my stomach" is a common expression conveying anxiety, fear, nervousness about an impending activity. The actual origin of the term is unclear although the feeling approximates what it must feel like to actually have real butterflies ricocheting from stomach wall to stomach wall.

Symbolism of inconstancy, defined as changeable, fickle, or variable, is derived from the metamorphosis of the butterfly from egg to caterpillar to chrysalis to adult. In a romantic sense, butterflies have fickle "love affairs" with the flowers they feed upon. Inconstancy is also represented by constant wing movement and hurried flight.

The butterfly as an aloof creature. They're difficult to catch and they usually don't stay long in one place. Some butterflies, especially the females of certain species, spend most of their lives at tree-top level. A boy chasing a fritillary butterfly illustrates the symbol of a goal beyond reach. The butterfly's ability to fly gives it a definite advantage over its pursuer. This symbolic use of the insect is only possible in conjunction with the portrayal of its hunter.

The term, social butterfly, represents one who seeks success and popularity by attempting to be seen with all the right people in all the right place. When applied to a woman, it usually means one who has dated many men, mostly to serve her own quest. The symbolism draws the analoge to a butterfly, busily fliting from flower to flower.

The butterfly kiss represents a very sensual kiss performed with the eyelashes. The kiss draws its name from the similarity of the fluttering of the eyelashes during this kiss and the wings of a butterfly in flight or upon alighting "on the cheek of a flower." Cosmetic companies have utilizes this symblism.

Wyman and Bailey quote Reichard as the source for the butterfly symbolizing temptation. The "butterfly is prominent as the seducer in the legend of Excessway."

Reichard, is also listed by Wyman and Bailey, as the source for the butterfly symbolizing foolishness. The origin is unclear although conjecture as to the often meandering style of flight, may seem to demonstrate a laziness in going about the gathering of its food. To Indians, the wasting of precious time was quite foolish. Food qatherinq was an all-consumin task with them during much of the year. The moths attraction to the light of a flame might also be considered foolish.

Some butterflies and moths are quite speedy, and even the most meandering species are capable of bursts of speed when pursued. "When boys or men run a race, they catch a butterfly without hurting it and rub setae from its wings on their legs to make them run with the speed of a butterfly." That statement was made by two Navaho Indians.

A characteristic preference for the lighted hours, cause butterflies to be identified with the day. Moths usually prefer the dark and have come to be identified with the night (There are day-flying moths, however, like the Urania leilus, but the majority fly at night.) Science futher fosters the acceptance of these two symbols but making the day/night differentiation one of the main distinguishing characteristics between butterflies and moths.

The first stirrings of Nature at winter's end inform us of spring's approach: among other plants and animals, the first butterfly, often the Mourning Cloak, emerging from its winterlong hiberation. Seeing a butterfly has long been regarded as a symbol of spring. An elderly Indian basket-weaver of a California tribe stated that a group of butterfly symbols (types of crosses) on her basket represented a flock of butterflies coming to tell her spring had arrived.

The image of a moth flying toward the singeing tongues of flames is the foundation for its use to symbolize self-destruction. Few people realize, however, that this seemingly unwarranted suicide (which also gives rise to the moth as a symbol of insanity) is not an act of foolish recklessness by the moth. The "magnetic" attraction of the fire or of a light source is related to a built-in malfunction in the moth's navigational system.

The Navaho Indians associate both moths and butterflies with insanity with much written about the equation of insanity and acting like a moth by jumping into the fire ('moth-crazy') which is said to result from sexual excess, breaking restrictions, and the like.

"All of our informants agreed that moths and butterflies, especially moths, are very dangerous; that if the setae get into food or water and are swallowed they are extremely poisonous, and will cause insanity and a desire to jump into the fire like a moth." "If you get the powder on you or in your eye, go loco like loco weed." "Contact with the powder from moth's wings will cause persons to commit clan incest; 'sisters and brothers marry, they crazy, jumps in fire." "This material may also be used as love magic; 'put it on girls to make them crazy over you."

"Like a moth to a flame" is a cliche used to denote the extent which something is able to be attracted to something else. If a certain fishing lure is being touted as a fantastic fish-catcher, the advertiser will say, "Fish come to it like moths to a flame." This symbol stems from the physical attraction moths have to a light source.

Butterflies apparently have a great deal to do with luck, both good and bad. "In Louisiana it is thought that good luck will follow shortly after a white butterfly flies into your house and flies around you." However, the same action is an omen of death in Maryland.

The life cycle of butterflies and moths has been used in many cultures to represent many things. The hatching from the egg is the equivalent of human birth. The caterpillar represents the stage of life; the lowly "worm" waiting for a transformation, just as we await our reward in an afterlife.

An association with certain "looping" caterpillars (Geometrids,) is measuring. Ask any child what a caterpillar of that type is doing on a branch and "Measuring it" will be the response.

Another metamorphosal symbol is inherent to the chrysalis (pupa) or cocoon. This is the "magical closet" where the amazing transformation will take place. It is the protective covering which will provide refuge for the changeling. The pupa or cocoon is a natural symbol for protection.

The cocoon carries a meaning of introversion or shyness. People of that type are occasionally said to be in a cocoon. Naturally, these introverted or shy people are seeking protection in their "cocoons."

Metamorphosis of butterflies and moths is one of the mysteries of Nature. The ability of these insects to change from the crawling caterpillar to the flying adult is almost magical. Many people are so awe inspired by the metamorphosis that they believe that butterflies and moths could never have evolved over millions of years without a God behind it.

One of the tribes of Sumatra claims to be descended from eggs laid by a butterfly (their wives were sent down from above fully grown), and in Madagascar and among the Naga tribes of Manipur, some trace their ancestry to a butterfly. A North American Pima Indian myth says that the creator, Chiowotmahki, took the form of a butterfly and flew over the world until he found a suitable place for man.

The butterfly symbolizing the occurs in numerous cultures over many centuries. Perhaps the most prominent association of the butterfly with the soul is with Psyche.

The myth of Psyche originated in the Orient. A Myth said the Rhetors (mere talkers) is "an untrue narrative representing truth." This myth is a good example of approaching "profound realities of Nature by poetic intuition." "Its secret sense shows through thanks to the symbolism of the butterfly."

By her beauty, Psyche has aroused the jealousy of Venus. She had seduced Eros himself. Carried away by Zephyre into a flowery valley. She lived there in a dream Palace. Each night she greeted there a lover that she was not supposed to see. On the false-hearted advice of her sisters, giving in to curiosity, she came once with a lamp, to see the one who shared her bed. A drop of oil fell on the god who took flight. Thus began the terrible afflictions from which the unfortunate one could escape only thanks to the complicity of Love. When she had surmounted them her wedding was celebrated in Olympia and she was admired at the banquet of the gods.

Now in Greek, Psyche signifies at the same time soul and butterfly. The myth was interpreted by playing on this double sense. It became the story of the soul touched by divine love, but which, by reason of the mistakes made, must undergo some tribulations before having access to happy immortality. The night butterfly [the moth] attracted by the flame, like the soul attracted by heavenly truths, burns in the flame, reflection of the trials that must be endured to eliminate the fleshy sink-stones before knowing the joys of the beyond.

The work of George Hoefnagel (1542-1601) attempted to illustrate sacred texts using symbols. Many of his works contain caterpillars and butterflies, symbolizing man and his soul.

Butterflies symbolize witches and fairies, but they also symbolize the soul of witches. Both butterflies and witches have the ability to change their form; butterflies change in the course of their development, witches allegedly can change at will.

The Serbians look on the butterfly as the soul of a witch and believe if they can find her body and turn it around while she is asleep, the soul will not be able to find her mouth and reenter, and the witch will probably die. Probably, this concept of the soul explains why many medieval angels have butterfly wings rather than those of a bird.

In the Solomon Islands, a "dying man has a choice as to what he will become at death and often chooses a butterfly."

"Among the Nagas of Assam the dead are believed to go through a series of transformations in the underworld and are finally reborn as butterflies. When the butterfly dies, that is the end of the soul forever." "The Maya looked upon butterflies also as the spirits of dead warriors in disguise descending to earth."

The chrysalis or cocoon is a common symbol of potential, usually individual potential: rags to riches, Cinderella to princess, ugly to beautiful, shy to extroverted, follower to leader; all are metaphors to the miraculous change from chrysalis to adult.

In Mexecal art, Xolatl is the chrysal form of the god Quetzalcoatl in the Land of the Dead. Xolatl is closely related to the Star of the Morning and marks the butterfly as an emblem of the soul. Certain American Indian tribes, specifically the Arapaho Indians, interpret the symbol for butterfly as the Morning Star.

Morning Star relationship of the soul and butterflies could be attributed to the star's continued appearance in the morning despite the passage of night (representing death). Since stars are normally associated with night, a morning star's existence in the day could symbolize the soul's life after death.

Often found in cartoon-style art, is the image of someone reaching deep into his pockets, turning them inside-out in his search for a few coins. Alternately, he opens his wallet looking for a dollar bill, but instead of finding money, moths fly out. Apparently, this has come to be a cartoonist's way of saying "It's been so long since there's been any money in here, moths have had time to invade." Depending on the relative worth of the possessor of the moth eaten money-container, the symbol either means the person hasn't used the container for so long that moths live in it; thus is stingy or that there hasn't been money in it to use; thus is poor.

In Navaho mythology, the hornworm caterpillar of a Sphinx moth has an important role. Hornworm's most important function in the myths was to provide the Hero Twins of Monsterway with an antidote for the Poisonous tobacco of their father the Sun. This has been called 'caterpillar spit' or 'vomit' and is obviously the green food material which hornworms regurgitate when disturbed.

One of the Navahos who contributed to Wyman and Bailey's research said, "The stuff from the mouth is good medicine when you get sick from smoking too much; put a little in water and drink it."

Many people feel that the caterpillar of the Tiger moth, Isia isabella, can aid in the prediction of the severity of the coming winter. Supposedly, if the reddish-brown band is narrower than normal, the winter will be longer and colder. If the band is wider than usual, a mild winter can be expected.

"Any butterfly flying in one's face is a sign of immediate cold weather to some; others specify that a yellow butterfly flying in one's face indicates sufficient frost within ten days to turn the leaves the color of the butterfly."

Also, the sighting of swarms of southward migrating butterflies, especially Monarch butterflies,is a sign to some that winter and cold weather are on the way.

The butterfly featured prominently in many works of the Art Nouveau movement. Representing a "return to nature," it was a time when artists chose Natural themes as a way of expressing their desire for man to get back to the simpler things. It came at the same time the Industrial Revolution was in full swing and urged rejection of it.

The butterfly has already been mentioned as a symbol of the beauty of Nature. It has also been used as a symbol of Nature itself. Bob Pyle, president of the Xerces Society (an international conservation group) explains one case where the butterfly stood for Nature.

In this instance, a rather widespread habitat, the Albany Pine Bush, had become reduced to only several hundred acres. The Karner Blue--which was first discovered by Vladimir Nabokov, the novelist--really is endemic to that one spot. By the greatest misfortune, a big development had been planned smack on top of the habitat. It couldn't have been planned to more effectively eradicate the butterfly.

Fortunately, we had some people on hand who were able to politicize the issue. Many different kinds of people in the Albany area came together behind this issue, using the butterfly as a symbol for an entire ecosystem. School kids were wearing butterfly suits, the works.

There is a ceremonial dance called "Bulitikibi" in Hopi Indian folklore. It is the Butterfly Dance and was allegedly "introduced by the prominent and powerful Butterfly Clan of one of the Hopi pueblos." It was an exhortation to the gods for a good harvest.

"Among some tribes of Mexico it [the butterfly] is a symbol of the fertility of the earth."

It is difficult to find humor in the depiction of butterflies and moths alone. Usually the humor enters when the insects appear in conjunction with humans either observing them, chasing or being chased by them. One of the most humorous situations concerning lepidoptera seems to involve the collector. The idea of a grown person armed with a net, chasing a darting specimen thither and yon, has provoked laughter and derision for years.

In Pre-Hispanic, Mexican Indian culture, the butterfly is one of the symbolic representatives of Tlaloc, god of rain. The fantastic stone heads that jut out from the bas-relief background of the pyramid of Quetzacoatl are carved in the same spirit (human form to geometric forms) although on a smaller scale. They represent symbolic combinations, alternately of jaguars and snakes, and of the stylized features of the rain god and the butterfly, which was considered one of his symbolic representatives.

Funk and Wagnalls' Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend reveals that "Some say that if a butterfly is put in a gun, It is impossible to miss the target." The source and range of this superstition is not revealed. Perhaps its originators felt the butterfly's spirit would impart the ability to fly to a target to the bullet.

Some illustrations in medieval illuminated manuscripts may be related to the origin of this superstition. In an article by Dr. G. Evelyn Hutchinson, in ISIS, the official journal of the History of Science Society, there appeared a picture of a hunter, shooting an arrow at a woodcock. This painting appears in The Bird Psalter (MS 2-1954 in the Fitzwilliam Museum). The woodcock "is being shot at by a man with a broad-bladed hunting arrow who appears to have just hit a pierid butterfly above the woodcock, transfixing its wing with a minute arrow." A similar scene is also contained in the Ormeshy Psalter (Bodleian Library, Oxford).

The measuring worm represents something else in Navaho mythology: "he helped to cheat in gambling." Coincidentally, the caterpillar is quite crooked, a term in our jargon meaning "inclined to cheat."

Various cultures possess prominent lepidoptera artistic styles. The Mexecal style, represented by the Mexican Indian tribes (Olmecs, Toltecs, Aztecs) depict stylized representation of butterflies. Characterized by a basic representation of the wing shapes, with some attempt to depict the body although often with only one or two of the three shapes. Wing designs feature repeated patterns and convoluted lines placed in a semi-concentric fashion. Sometimes the butterfly is represented with little attention to the four distinct wings. Other times, usually in the less ornate depictions, the four wings are distinct. Eyes and antennae are often disregarded in the more ornate versions; they are more likely to be included in the simpler specimens. The curved tails on many examples mark them as probable swallowtails (family Papilio).

The Amerind style, represented by the various American Indian tribes, usually feature a geometric stylization utilizing squares and triangles with varying degrees of adornment.

Haida-Amerind is a distinctive variety of the Amerind style represented by the Haida Indians. The sculpted representation of a butterfly is so stylized, it looks more like a winged chipmunk rather than a butterfly; however, the Haida often ascribed physical attributes to animals which did not possess them in reality such as human eyebrows on ravens and beavers and on butterflies. This style often features curved areas of solid color bordered by bold, black outlines.

A diverse spectrum of artistic styles range from total abstraction through graphic representations of butterflies and moths.

Abstractive Naturalism is the depiction of actual leidopteral patterns or outlines in such a way as to appear non-objective. One method of accomplishing this is to enlarge a small section of wing pattern forty or fifty times. Another way is to utilize various wing profiles in overlapping or parallel designs.

The Abstract style of lepidopteral art uses pure, geometric shapes to portray the butterfly or moth. If the viewer were not told the object depicted were a butterfly, it might be taken for a design.

In Semi-Abstract style, specimens are represented using areas of solid color. The shapes of these areas are abstracted from the shapes of wings and color patterns found on the actual specimens.

Cubist lepidopteral style is a semi-realistic portrayal of butterflies and moths. Their shapes are more geometricized than the real specimen, often squarish or triangular. Cubism is a geometrical style based on Cezanne's dictum that the basic forms of Nature are the cylinder, the sphere and the cone. In some works angular forms are dominant. The Amerind style, which also features geometrical figures, is much different from the Cubist style. The latter usually looks more like a butterfly or moth. Cubist art specimens may also differ from the Amerind ones in the use of many overlapping geometric shapes to show one specimen.

Pointillism is a "variety of Luminism; also called Divisionism. In this style, best exemplified by Seurat, colour is applied to the canvas in small dots." The butterfly is seen as a group of unconnected dots in this style. An effect of movement or vibration is achieved with this method. The specimen almost flutters.

Butterflies and moths done in a Fantasy style may vary greatly in appearance, but all have a common identity--they look like something out of a fairy tale or a dream. The artist's imagination is most evident in this style as far as shape and patterns depicted. Fantasy style specimens often look nothing like actual specimens.

Psychedelic style usually has a flowing, sweeping quality, often featuring bordered areas of solid color. Peter Max is probably the best known of the Psychedelic artists. The word curvilinear aptly describes his style and that of his contemporaries. Their works are often dreamlike, wild, imaginative glimpses into the creative mind's interpretations of reality. Some Psychedelic art is an attempt to portray the scenes viewed on a drug trip.

Art Nouveau style is characterized by the stylization of Natural forms for decorative purposes: graceful and sinuous curves are typical of this style. Primarily produced from 1890-1910, this movement symbolized a rejection of the mass-produced items of the industrial society and was an artistic attempt to return to Nature.

Impressional lepidopteral style describes representations of butterflies and moths, depicted only vaguely, like a near-sighted artist would see them with the artist's glasses removed.

Graphic style encompasses works of recent artists (1900 on) which are primarily illustrations for books and advertisements. Although the works often differ widely in appearance, their use identifies them as Graphic style.

The Cartoon style features butterflies and moths in the caricatured, abbreviated style of the cartoonist. Simplicity of shape and ornamentation characterizes all of the various individual cartoonists' styles.

Another diverse spectrum of artistic styles are represented by the illustrative depiction of butterflies and moths rather than their intentional stylization. Butterflies and moths executed in the unpolished style of children are done in Elementary style. In younger artists whose work is often identifiable by the hot dog body, the face (usually with a smile) is on the back of the specimen's head.

Butterflies and moths painted in the Primitive style are easily recognized as lepidoptera, but the artists' representations of them are inaccurate, often owing to the artists' lack of training. Primitive renditions are realistic but obviously not exact. Wing outlines may curve when they should be straight. Color patterns are not reproduced accurately as far as placement or color.

The Manuscript style was prevalent in the illuminated manuscripts of the 1300's and 1400's. The butterflies and moths in these works were obviously done by talented artists, but looked as though they were done from memory and not from life. The forewings were usually narrowed. Undulating lines bordered some of the wings, even though they were not present on the actual specimens.

Most Colonial style works were painted between 1700 and 1850. The butterflies and moths in these works evidence more artistic ability and training than the Primitive style works, but contain too many departures from the actual specimens to be labeled Realistic.

Butterflies and moths were particularly well suited for inclusion in the works of Late Gothic paintings, produced during the 1400's-1500's by Flemish court masters and by artists in areas of Holland or France under Flemish rule or influence. These paintings featured several characteristics which reflected the mature Medieval culture of the North and the new Renaissance Spirit: Objective realism - an interest in all details and material facts, whether a pattern on a cloth or the wrinkles in a face; Naturalism - an interest in portraying Nature as realistically as possible; Symbolism - the late Medieval world saw symbolism ripen into an over-complex and endless series of interpretations, both divine and profane, based on almost every material object represented in art.

The Neo-Classical style "stressed line, balanced composition, smoothly modeled figures, muted coloring and ennobled expressions and gestures. "Neo-Classicism was a self-conscious revival of antique forms inspired by the archaeological excavations of J. J. Winckelman." The themes favored by Neo-Classical artists were those favored by the Academy: mythological subjects and Classical histories.

Specimens painted in the Obtuse style, popular from around 1900 to 1930, are not exactly realistic, and mainly shown show the specimen viewed from the side with wings at an open angle.

The Scientific style of picturing lepidoptera is defined as the technically exact, realistic representation of butterflies and moths. Photographic style exists where the artist draws or paints the specimen as realistically as possible, where the specimen looks almost like a photograph. Pictorial style occurs where the specimen is fairly exact as far as coloration and venation, but is obviously a picture. Linear style exists where line drawing, stippling and shading are used to depict a specimen.

Realistic artworks depict specimens as close to their actual appearance as the artist's ability permits. It is the same as the photographic type of the Scientific style but is called Realistic when the artwork is not a scientific piece