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The third and last monarch of a united Germany, William II was cast by his enemies as the villain of the piece in World War I. Today that war is considered as the result of a clash of rival imperialism's. Britain feared Germany's growing industrial and naval strength. Personal dynastic illusions of the emperors of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia also played their part. In this sense only was William's ebullient and conceited personality a factor in the events leading up to the Holocaust.

William II (of Germany and Prussia), full name Fredrick Wilhelm Viktor Albert (1859 -1941), Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia (1888-1918), whose policies helped bring about World War I.

William, also known as Kaiser Wilhelm, was born on January 27, 1859, in Berlin and educated at the University of Bonn. When William was born, Prussia was the most powerful in a united free trade of lesser German states. From 1862, under his grandfather King William I and the "Iron Chancellor" Bismarck, it became the most powerful state in continental Europe. Her king became the emperor of the former German federation. William himself took the throne in 1888 after a three-month reign by his dying father Fredrick III. Influenced by his wife Victoria, daughter of the Great English Queen, Frederick had held liberal views. His son, fascinated by the triumphs of his grandfather's reign, had extravagant ideas of the divinity of kingship and the imperial destiny of Germany.

He was the son of Prince Fredrick William, later German emperor as Fredrick III, and Victoria Adelaide Mary Louise, eldest daughter of Queen Victoria of Great Britain. In 1881, after a period of military service, he was married to Augusta Victoria, princess of Schleswig-Holstein. He became emperor in 1888 upon the death of his father, who had reigned for only three months.

William II's first major action as emperor was his dismissal in 1890 of the aged chancellor Prince Otto Von Bismarck, who had been largely responsible for the growth of the German Empire under the emperor's grandfather. William I. Thereafter he participated significantly, often decisively, in the formulation of foreign and domestic policies. His administration of internal affairs was marked by rapid transformation of Germany from an agricultural to a major industrial state and by the accompanying development of serious problems in capital-labour relations. William was only partially successful in his attempts to curb the growth of Germany's Social Democratic party, which ultimately became the largest political group in the empire.

The emperor believed that he ruled by divine right; foreign affairs interested him, but his policies were contradictory and confused. He professed deep friendship for Great Britain but drove that country into alliance with France and Russia by his aggressive programme of colonial, commercial and naval expansion. Similarly, his policy of friendship with Russia and support of Russian ambitions in the Far East was negated by his encouragement of Austro-Hungarian actions and Balkans. He believed firmly in the efficacy of the Triple Alliance as a deterrent to war, and he probably was devoid of militaristics ambitions. Imperial policy under his impulsive guidance severely aggravated the international frictions that culminated in World War I.

In 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia. William assured Austria of German support, believing his personal intervention with "Nicky" would halt Russian mobilisation in the support of Serbia.

His uncle, Edward VII of England (died 1911), had once written: "My nephew will release the forces of war not as a result of his own initiative, but out of weakness." As William signed the orders for German mobilisation on August 1 1914, he said to his generals: "Gentlemen, you will live to rue the day you made me do this." During the war William's position became increasingly that of a figurehead. Realising his own incapacity as a military leader, he left the responsibility for military decisions increasingly to the German generals Paul Von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff. He ignored the 1917 peace resolutions submitted by the Reichstag and urged continuation of the war. Failure of the German offensive of 1918 brought mounting unrest to the German armies and people. By October 1918 the allies were demanding William's abdication as a precondition of peace, and revolution loomed in Germany. Ludendorff saw that defeat was inevitable. He democratised the regime and retired. At noon on November 9 Prince Max of Baden, the recently appointed parliamentarian chancellor, announced the emperor's abdication without consulting him. He then resigned the chancellorship. Two hours later the Berlin crowds were cheering the German republic. Germany signed an armistice on November 11 1918. William left his country and went to Holland. During the peace negotiations at Versailles, various representatives of the victorious Allies urged vainly that William be extradited and as a war criminal. He spent his remaining years in complete seclusion at Doorn Castle in the Netherlands. After the death of the former empress in 1912, William married Hermine, princess of Schonaich-Carolath. He lived to see the resurgence of German armed power and after his death on June 4, 1941, was buried with military honours on the order of Hitler.

He died as he had ruled . . . a symbol of aggressive German militarism. But William believed that he had not sought war. His chancellor, Von Bulow, once said: "We seek to put no one in the shade; merely to give ourselves a place in the sun." A colonial empire, a powerful navy, extended European influence - any one was a feasible objective. Pursued

Short question 1:

Bibliography.

Gilbert, M. First World War, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1994.

Floyd, E. and Hindley, G. Makers Of History, Bloomsbury books, London, 1992.

Tierney, M. Europe Since 1870, C. J. Fallon, Dublin, 1984.

Short questions 2:

Skills: While completing this research topic the following skills were learnt.

1. How to write up the bibliography.
2. How to use foot notes.
3. How to find books at school.
4. How to find information.
5. How to use Microsoft Word

Short questions 3:

One of the books used for the essay was the FIRST WORLD WAR by Martin Gilbert. Many works have been published on WWI. What makes this one different is that all fronts are given detailed treatment, not just the Western front, but also the Eastern, Italian, Palestine, Mesopotanian, Salonica, Gallipoli, East Africa, the naval front, and to a certain extent the air war. The Pacific front is mentioned but not really covered. Gilbert attempts to personalise the war by filling the history with personal anecdote, and this succeeds to an extent. You will not find a survey of what motivated millions of young men to sign up, but you will find the comments of one or two of them on the subject. The book is written without bias, although most of the material describes the Entente side. The political issues are well analysed, although military issues are barely considered. Breakthroughs just happen, with no further explanation. You will not guess from the book that tanks were present at Paschendaele, or indeed were prone to sinking in mud. You will never read about the Germans built a tenth of the tanks that the Entente built. Blame for the war is laid firmly at the door of Austria, although the part played by their Chief of Staff in all this barely mentioned. In conclusion, a good primer in that it is all-encompassing. Not much here however for the specialist, although uniquely the book shows the war also from the point of view of both European and Palestinian Jewry.