CELTIC
KNOTWORK:
Interlacing the
spirituality and ideals of pre-medieval times
Most
Celtic knotwork, known as Celtic Interlace can be identified through the
infinite repetition of patterns, the grand swirls, and zoomorphic figures.
Although it is traditionally seen as part of the Celtic culture, knotwork
originated in many different forms and cultures. The geometric motifs on
stone carvings and in illumination manuscripts hold just a few of the
immense richness of designs and symbolism that had inspired and influenced
the ancient craftsmen.
Interlace is one of the most
identifiable aspects of Celtic art, but even then it comes late in the
Celt’s timeline of history. Around 800 BC the Celtic cultures
encompassed a good part of Europe. However, most of the knotwork stems
from the British Isles, France, Germany, and the Netherlands. Around 700
BC the early art forms included compass drawn
decorations and compositions based on axial symmetry. Around 400 BC
a continuous vegtal style of art developed, which had radial symmetry
alongside those with axial symmetry. In 200 BC a Plastic style and Sword
style art (the blending of human, animal, plant, and abstract forms)
completed complex compositions incorporating various forms of symmetry,
drew metalworkers and craftsmen designs to a peak. By 100 AD, Britain was
conquered by Rome and Christianity had found it’s way into the Celtic
world.
“The very most important thing
which need to be understood, is the aim of Celtic artwork was not to
express reality, or to reproduce it, but to express religious philosophy.
The finished designs were not dedicated to human eyes, but to the eyes of
God – for who else of mere mortal perceptions, could possibly appreciate
the infinitesimal world of the infinite, which Celtic artisans created?”
Douglas Monroe goes on to identify how important these figures were in the
lives of the Celts. They reflect beliefs in the spirituality of nature and
the potency of threes. Designs based on the symbolic circle of life were
drawn with compasses and with extreme detail. Circular emblems were
thought to be symbols of the sun and the rotation
of the seasons. Typical geometrical symbols and patterns of this era like
the boat figures and sun figures
(c.800-c.500BC), are otherwise known as the
Halstatt period. The development of the circular sun-and-life symbol may
have been intended to protect the bearer (can be seen on shields) but
often served as offerings to the gods and thrown into a nearby river that
was considered sacred. Much of what we know about the Celtic culture of
the Halstatt and La Tene Settlements comes form two archeological sites
– one near Lake Halstatt in Austria, and the other at La Tene on the
river Thielle in Switzerland. Around the 800 BC marker, the Halstatt
culture had emerged with this highly developed craftsmanship
and
decoration known as the Golden Age of Celtic art. The decorations found on
the jewelry and other artifacts found at Halstatt had already developed
the markers of what we call today as Celtic artwork, and the knotwork fell
into one of the most identifiable signatures of that time. From 500 BC to
100 AD, known as the La Tene period, the rate of stylistic development and
innovation had slowed, while the number of decorated items being produced
increased greatly. This had meant that there are a number of copiers but
very few innovators, as the style grew more popular with the general
public. The majority of these artifacts were not weaponry though, because
this period was not a time of great wars. Many of the artifacts that have
survived were offerings,
thrown into sacred wells and other shrines. This may mean that the weapons
were not needed for real wars, especially if offering them to gods kept
the peace.
Other spiral symbols include a
single spiral, which is the oldest and most recorded of motifs. It
symbolizes the concept of growth, expansion, and cosmic energy to many of
the Celts, to the ancient Irish, the spiral was used to represent their
sun. A clockwise spiral is strongly associated with water (rainy seasons),
power, independent movement, and tribal migrations and can be seen on many
megalithic rock carvings. A tighter circle similar to this style is also
representative of the sun, but means an eclipse, which held great power
for many Celtic faiths such as the Druids. A counterclockwise spiral may
have signified the large summer sun, often pictured with smaller clockwise
spirals (summer solstice). A variation on this motif consists of two
interconnected spirals with clockwise rotation, very old significance
dating back to prehistoric times, was often used to denote water or the
sea. Another double spiral similar to this has thought to represent
equinoxes, when day and night are of equal length. A closed variation on
this has deep and hidden meanings and magical
significance attached to it. Representing the duality found in nature is a
dual spiral. But one of the most common types of spirals is the structure
called the spiral of life. The sign is drawn in one single line without
beginning or end and often represented the Threefold Goddess (maiden,
mother, and crone). The circle, spiral, and wheel are all-powerful symbols
found in interlaces and representing the cycle of life, death, and
rebirth, as well as the seasons. This had later been taken by the
Christians to represent the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. The Celtic Cross
similarly was used to represent the celestial world (vertical axis) and
the earthly world (horizontal axis) as well as solar symbols as sources of
light and ultimate energy, today seen as part of the Christian meaning in
relation to Christ’s crucifixion. From the 4th century BC,
plant and animal motifs became less naturalistic and more fluid.
Reflecting the Celtic mythic imagination, in which the real and the
fantastic were interwoven. Seen in the Book of Kells (c.800AD) old motifs
of circles, wholes, triskeles and beasts were used to glorify Christ
instead of the old gods of earlier times. Unbroken interlace patterns such
as those found in the illuminated manuscripts could often cover entire
pages and were devoted to saints
through metaphorical animals and human figures. The early Celtic church
differed greatly from what is practiced today. Its’ loosely organized
community of monastic orders in the wilderness reflected not only the
pagan Celtic societies (where groves and springs were sacred spaces) but
also resembled the early Christian groups found in North Africa.
Interlaces were used by the Coptic communities in North Africa as
well, although they were never as well defined as those stemming from the
British Isles, where they had developed into a local phenomenon apparent
today in the resurgence of Celtic knotwork.
Knotwork was developed by the pagan
Picts of southwest Scotland, and originally may have been an offshoot of
weaving and basket making. The earliest knotwork was based on a simple
diagonal weave pattern similar to that found in ancient Egyptian, Greek and
Mediterranean cultures. They differ in that the cords of knotwork strands
are broken and repeated into many knots to combine patterns and fill
larger panels of designs.
The patterns were first seen in
stone carving and in metalworking. Relief work of the three-dimensional
knots interwove cords, creating deep shadows in the medium. When carved
like this each cord actually descends deeper to pass under the next. The
later scribes working on parchment with pen and ink simulated the
three-dimensional knots by coloring the background darker than the cords.
Due to the extremely fine brushes and quill pens, by the Book of Kells
(c.800AD) the monks were able to draw them on unbelievable small scales
and accuracy.
Before going into battle, the
Celtic warriors of Ireland, Scotland and Britain had painted their entire
bodies with colorful spirals and images of ferocious animals to aid them
in their fight. The many spiral patterns may have been used as charms to
ward off evil, especially if the spiral was drawn counterclockwise, with
the rotation form right to left (the opposite, of the natural direction in
which a snail shell grows.) The spiral is one of the most ancient symbols
of this time, it is carved into standing stones that date back to the late
Stone Ages and is found at Newgrange Ireland which
dates
around 3000 BC. Spirals often tend to be grouped into threes (known as “triskeles”)
and have been found at gravesites before written record that documents
their meaning. In Christian times, the monks used the spiral as a symbol
of the ever-changing, whirling Cosmos, all in motion revolving around the
one unmoving centerpoint or the Creator. “It seems possible that the
early Celts may have accepted Christ into the pantheon of their other gods
without discarding the old. The
acceptance of the Pagan style of decoration on
the churches suggests that the workmen were working in an artistic
vernacular with which they were familiar. Christian interpretations were
grafted slowly upon Pagan traditions transforming pagan holidays into
Christian holidays.” Another main design characteristic found in Celtic
art is the use of interlacing animals and humans, otherwise known as
zoomorphic figures. This is youngest form of knotwork and first appeared
in manuscripts during the mid-seventh century. Zoomorphic interlace blends
a traditionally Irish/Scottish style with that of
a
Germanic version brought to Ireland in the gospel books of European
missionaries and scholars. The old pagan beliefs still held power over
converted Christians despite Roman efforts of conversion. A common taboo
warned against creating the exact likeness of a living person, so the
monks could represent a saint or martyr since they were deceased but for
most other images the arms, legs, and necks would be interlaced into
positions which would be impossible in real life.
Christians may have adopted a technique for
conversion using the local faiths’ similarities to their advantage. One
such technique employed the use of the Celt’s Seven Forms of Created
Life: humans, beasts, birds, reptiles, fish, insects, and plants. They
were often carefully included within the same page and decorative panels
of manuscripts and prayer books. The plants were always pictured as
growing from a pot or vase, sprouting leaves and often Eucharistic in
grapevine imagery.
Some of the zoomorphic figures are
readily identifiable as symbols of saints. A man symbolizes St. Matthew,
St. John has the eagle, St. Mark the lion, St. Luke has the calf, and the
peacock or phoenix identifies Christ. These creatures are not only
entangled in the knotwork but seem to be consuming it, creating an eternal
cycle of life death and rebirth. And in the gospels, the knotwork is
interpreted as representing Christ’s love and can be consumed endlessly.
Key patterns are another main
feature found in the artwork. They are named for their key-shaped paths,
and are based on spirals with straight lines. Constructed on a diagonal
grid, the paths bend back upon themselves at various angles, forming the
small triangles of dark background, which give keys their distinctive
look. They are usually drawn or carved into rectangular boarders, but
historically the Celts have skillfully fit them into circles, triangles,
or odd-shaped panels. Archeologists have found these patterns engraved
into ancient mammoth ivories and are much older than the Celtic
civilization itself.
In the illuminated manuscripts, the
rigid geometric boarders and letters of the pages are enclosed and often
encompassed by the endlessly twisting lines with intertwined creatures.
These lines and creatures in turn are based on fairly rigid geometry,
though it is circular in nature instead of rectangular. Close examination
reveals the ‘horns’ of the serpents, the “topknots” of the birds,
the beards and hair of the human figures all done in free hand. If the
creature is part of a repeat pattern the fine details are hardly ever
repeated exactly, but vary from each other in some way showing the artists
creativity away from the compass and ruler. It often took monks or even
years to complete a master manuscript. A leaf could take an immense amount
of time to finish due to several stages in the planning process.
“Divine” inspiration often offered tails of monks completing a
particularly inspirational piece within hours. But usually the page was
completed after several pre-drawings and a process of inserting gold leaf
and color. The Christian manuscripts were usually written on vellum, and
bound together using wooden boards coated in animal hide. They used wax
tablets for sketching and working out their designs because the materials
were often expensive to acquire outside the monastery. The script found in
many of the Celtic Illuminations decorated with knotwork was often uncial,
a formal script which first appeared in the fourth
century,
and which used only capitol letters. The designs of these letters had been
developed in the Roman Empire during the fourth century, and were used as
the main style of writing in books. The half-uncial or insular majuscule
script was developed in early Christian Ireland and spread eastward
through Scotland, England, and the Celtic monasteries in mainland Europe.
It is used in many of the manuscripts, most notably in the books of
Lindisfarne and Durrow. Yet another script was developed by the Irish, a
cursive which is much harder to read but also much faster to produce.
According to legend, Cenn Faelad, who died in 670 AD, developed the Gaelic
script within a week from the Latin in the seventh century- one of the
greatest secular scholars of the Dark Ages of Ireland.
There have been suggestions that
interlace patterns form a sort of language or in a sense, musical
notation. Interlace embodies an idea, made up of a band or group of bands
or patternwork which, like a woven thread, pass alternatively over and
under one another as if they loop and knot around each other. There is one
basic rule stating that, a band
must alternate over and under throughout the design, but most often the
“idea” of interlace is composed of a single band.
The advance of the Roman Empire
profoundly affected the La Tene culture. But the Celtic tribes survived,
and in some cases thrived, during the Roman occupation. While most tribes
fought the Roman incursion, many were quickly defeated and assimilated into Roman
culture. Despite multiple invasions, the Celtic culture is maintained
through present day Celtic languages and art. Where Celts still held their
own during the Christian era, the early Celtic Church concentrated on more
spiritual and social matters, and preached a culture of asceticism,
mediation and self-enlightenment, rather than obedience and allegiance
preferred by Rome. And this is where much of the knotwork originated.
Unlike the earlier Pagan period, where weapons and jewelry reign, much of
the knots became associated with religious worship in the Christian faith.
Stone crosses, plate and chalices used for Holy Communion and Bibles
became extensively known throughout the land and the earlier techniques
and styles of the Pagan past transformed into a new religious study.
“The
meaning of the Celtic knot resides within us.
We
are its living, breathing representation.
Much
like the strands of the Celtic knot,
our
ancestors continue through us,
echoing
throughout generations –
never
ending thread of life.”
Celtic
Knotwork: Interlacing the spirituality and ideals of pre-medieval times
By
Autumn J. Laird
Bibliography
Carroll,
Michael. The Four Principal Forms of Celtic Art. Feb. 24, 2000. On-line. http://www.mccelticdesign.com/
Celtic
Art Net. Ancient & Celtic Symbols. Feb. 24, 2000. On-line. http://www.celtic-art.net/Symbols/Page42.htm
Fleming,
Fergus; Husain, Shahruk; Littleton, Scott C.; Linda A. Malcor. Myth and
Mankind. Heroes of the Dawn: Celtic Myth. Amsterdam: Time-Life Books,
1996.
Geisler,
Gary. Celtic Art & Cultures. Feb. 24, 2000. On-line. http://www.unc.edu/courses/art111/celtic/.
Hewitt,
Pamela. Zoomorphics in Celtic Irish Illumination. Feb. 24, 2000. On-line. http://www.florilegium.org/files/ANIMALS/Zoomorphics-art.html
Monroe,
Douglas. The Lost Books of Merlin. St. Paul: Llewellyn Publications, 1998.
Meehan,
Aidan. Celtic Alphabets. New York: Thames and Hudson Inc., 1997.
****Sabine, Heinz. Symbols of the Celts. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., 1997.****
Other Links:
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/ancientireland/
http://www.aon-celtic.com/cfreeware.html
http://www.webomator.com/bws/data/freeart/celtic/celtic_interlace.html
http://www.davehall.force9.co.uk/
