Wicca is a not only a spiritual path, but defines itself as a religion. Craft author, Margot Adler, calls it "a religion without converts". Wicca, (Craft- Neo-paganism) emerged in many forms during the counter-culture of the sixties and continues to be an engaging path in the 'New Age' movement.

Starting with pagan, we must first define the root meaning of the word. It comes from paganus, meaning a rural or country dweller --later it came to mean someone out of earshot of early Christian evangelism. To the early Christian the word simply meant a non-believer, but eventually it became synonymous with the frightening word: heretic -- one who must be converted or suffer dreadful consequences in the afterlife. It also came to mean one who worshipped many strange and fearful gods and held superstitious rites. The Church came to believe such people were dangerous, as they might convert or harm others. In the movies, and other popular culture, pagans were always depicted as uncivilized savages, sacrificing beautiful virgins to grotesque idols, etc.

Pagans were originally hunters and gatherers and evolved into agricultural people, farmers and breeders of livestock. They depended on nature for their sustenance, therefore fertility of animals and crops was the most important aspect of their rites. At one time, all inhabitants of the earth were pagan. They worshipped nature spirits, and in shamanistic rites sought to share power with them. Eventually, totemic spirits became gods, and sometimes tribal wars were fought to appease those gods. Moving further ahead, most pagan societies developed gods much like themselves, with the same needs and fears, enemies and friends; male and female. Later, paganism became an outgrowth of the spiritual needs of humans as well as an explanation of how and why things happened the way they did. Thunder, for example, might be an angry god, sexual lust came from a fertility god or goddess, draught, from a missing rain god; sunshine, from a heavenly, joyful chariot god. The moon, usually female, with it's twenty eight day cycle, connected to darkness and to mystery. A mother goddess was connected to earth, since it was from the earth that all life sprung. The sex of the gods varied from culture to culture. Wisdom, war, love and sex, for example, could be male or female, depending on the city, the weather, the age, culture and pantheon. Moral or ethical teachings were not usually the business of the gods until much later in history. As time went on, rural pagans shifted to classical pagan society by adding philosophy to their pagan faith. Among the later Greeks and Romans, the teachings of the gods served as examples and archetypes for good and evil choices.

Conservative western theologians today still consider Hindus as pagan, because they revere many gods and nature spirits. Hindus do not see themselves that way. Hindus believe that each of their gods and demi-gods; devas (there are thousands) are segments of the multi-persona of a complex and androgynous Supreme Source. If one reads the Gita, the Hindu sacred book, they will find it filled with moral and ethical teachings. Tibetan Buddhism, an offshoot of Hinduism, has a similar pantheon, as well as many books on noble and ethical teachings. Therefore, in some cultures, paganism developed into a spiritual philosophy as well as a religion. Where that did not succeed, the culture often succumbed to Islam or Christianity, although the sword contributed to conversion as well.

Pantheism has roots in paganism, but with considerably more depth. Paganism suggests innocence; simplicity -- but childish indifference to morals, spiritual needs or ethics. Pantheism adds philosophy, ethics and metaphor, including present Jungian psychology. It augments the search for spiritual truths through archetype and allegory explained through dreams, legends, nature, music, art and poetry.

In her book, The Training and Work of an/n/t/ate, Dion Fortune, a famous 20th century occultist and author, defines Pantheism as a mystical path encompassing beauty and power. G.I.Gurdjieff, a renowned esoteric author, teacher and student of P.D.Ouspensky, (a famous theosophist of this century) connected pantheism to the Orphic branch of mysticism "whose aim is the realization of the inherent idea of the Divine through the harmonization of inspiration and feeling."

Pantheism recognizes by connecting with the ebb and flow of the cosmos, and honoring nature in her many sacred aspects, one may acquire knowledge and spiritual truths of many traditions both ancient and ever changing. In regularly connecting to this 'mystical mandala', pantheists honor the Goddess, or female archtype, in her guises as sacred Muse, and the God, or male archtype, in his guise as activating Energy. Through connecting and bonding with these aspects, and with each other, pantheists strive to deepen their own mystical powers and enhance their spiritual lives. They are dedicated to the continual opportunity evolution presents, which is to transform and regenerate their inner spirit and value the sacred in all life.

Because pantheism is the path of the 'mystic' it is not interested in validating itself through a mysterious, non-verifiable, hereditary tradition, but through genetic memory in the guise of fairy tales, myth, poetry, dreams and folklore which supply the follower with various ideas and symbolism. The language may be likened to that of an artist in search of beauty and truth; the training designed with the view of bringing consciousness into complete harmony with all parts of nature. Search for spiritual knowledge is through study and interpretation of various esoteric traditions with origins in both Eastern and Western philosophy. Pantheists tend to be a-political, do not recruit or proselytize nor become preoccupied with hierarchical power. They do seek to train interested and responsive students to recognize their own personal divinity by blending imagination, dream, myth and intuition into the creation of mystery plays, poetry and metaphorical ritual.

When training, the teacher perceives the questions of the student to be more significant than the answers, and encourages students to seek spirituality and inner power from a variety of ancient and modern esoteric wisdom.

Just as one cannot define Christianity without discussing Jesus, St. Paul, or the unsettled times in which they developed -- one cannot define Wicca/Witchcraft without defining Gerald Gardner, some of his contemporaries and the unsettled times in which WIcca developed.

Gardner was born near Liverpool, England in 1884. As a child, he suffered from asthma, and his nurse was permitted to take him to the warmer climates of Europe during the English winters. His nurse married a man who lived in Ceylon, (an island off of India) and Gardner traveled there with her and worked on a tea plantation. Later he worked in Borneo and Malaysia.

In those native countries he became acquainted with folklore, and was especially fascinated by ritual daggers and knives, later writing a book called 'Kris, and Other Malay Weapons'. The ways and legends of the natives had more of an impact on him than Christianity. From 1923-1936, Gardner worked in the Far East for the British Government as a civil servant, and during those years, he became an amateur archeologist. After Gardner married, he continued traveling around Europe and Asia Minor, and wrote a novel in 1939, A Goddess Arrives, about Aphrodite and the worship of the Goddess.

In New Forest, England, he joined a Masonic Order, and met Mrs. Besant Scott, daughter of well known theosophist and author, Annie Besant. That group established "The First Rosicrucian Theater in England", which put on plays with occult themes. Soon after, Gardner and other witches, claimed to have discovered secret witchcraft groups in New Forest and was initiated into one of them by a mysterious woman named Dorothy Clutterbuck. Despite valiant attempts, no one has ever been able to verify this person's existence. Gardner met Ale/stet Crowley in 1946, a stage magician, and an honorary member of the Ordo Ternpti Orient/s, (OTO), a tantric sex magic order, at one time under Crowley's leadership. Most researchers today believe that Gardner incorporated some of Crowley's ideas into his own rituals. Indeed, in the ritual of Drawing Down the Moon, some of Crowley's writings can be found. In 1949, Gardner wrote a fiction book titled High Magic's Aid. It included rituals from his own coven, and involved the worship of a Horned God. A Goddess was not mentioned at that time.

In 1951, England repealed it's witchcraft laws. Gardner left New Forest, broke away from his original coven and formed one of his own. That same year he visited the Isle of Man, where a museum of Magic and Witchcraft had been set up by a man named Cecil Williamson. Gardner became the 'resident witch', and added his own collection of artifacts and ritual tools he'd collected over the years.

In 1953, Gardner initiated Doreen Valiente, now author of many books on Witchcraft. Valiente re-wrote most of Gardner's original rituals, which were fragmentary at best, and as Valiente has written, inappropriate because they were too modern. (After all, this book was supposedly handed down, unchanged for centuries.) From 1954-57, Valiente and Gardner collaborated on the writing of many ritual and non-ritual material, which became the final authority for the Gardnerlan Book of Shadows. (Book of Shadows suggests secrecy.) It was during this time, that the Goddess became preeminent, the High Priestess -- all but infallible.

Gardner's first non-fiction book, Witchcraft Today, became an immediate success, and covens began springing up around England, vaulting Gardner into the public spotlight. The press dubbed him "England's Chief Witch". The Crown further enhanced his fame by giving him an award for his distinguished civil-service in the Far East. Many witch or Wiccan traditions today are modified rites from the original Gardnerian/Vatiente rituals.

In 1972, Llewellyn published a book by Lady Sheba called the Grirnoire of Lady Sheba. which contained most of the Gardnerian rituals and rites. She claimed in her book to be a hereditary witch who was accepted into Gardnerian Wicca as an honor to her family. The charter for her group from the state of Michigan appears in the preface of her book. Witches and especially Gardnerian witches were angered by the printing, and the book went off the market quickly. Lady Sheba defended the book claiming she had been directed by the Goddess to write it. (I have a copy, but have seen none other.) The secret 162 Laws of Wicca, and the entire text of the Book of Shadows including alt the initiation rites (previously held secret) were published in the book. Those rites had been hand copied by many students from their HP and HPS and professed to be totally secret. Lady Sheba was billed as the Witch Queen of America.

At this point one cannot continue without mentioning the vast amount of Wiccan/pagan material now published on the subject. Twenty years ago, you couldn't find such a book in print, with the exception of Lady Sheba, and that book was never on a student's reading list. Most books were vague, but enticing -- claiming all was secret. Today Wiccans and pagans have researched the true origins of Wicca and found that such claims as heredity are nothing more than fiction. Author and teacher, Doreen Valiente, admits having written most of the original Gardnerian Book of Shadows.

Gardnerian tradition is centered on worship of the Goddess and her consort the Horned God, represented by the HPS and HP. It emphasizes polarity in all things manifest in the universe. Eight seasonal pagan Sabbats are observed, and the Wiccan Rede is the guiding principle. Formal initiation into a coven by a HP and HPS is stressed. A woman is initiated by a man, and vice-versa. The tradition has three degrees, separated by a minimum of a year and a day. The deities are called by a multitude of names, and rituals are performed sky-clad (nude) in a magick circle. Gardnerians hold that worshipping in the nude brings them closer to nature and keeps all coveners equal. (Some covens today no longer practice sky-clad.)

Magic in the tradition is the ureic, that is, performed with the aid of beneficent spirits such as Elementals and Guardians of the four Watchtowers which loosely resemble the four Archangels. Mild scourging (symbolizing 'one must suffer to learn') and sex magick are two of the eight ways in which Gardner advocated the raising of power. Others were meditation, chants, spells and invocations. astral projection, incense, hallucinogenic drugs, and the use of special cords for binding and knot mag/ck. It is no surprise, given Gardner's background that these techniques are similar to those employed by Eastern mystics, i.e. Many witches now practice Eastern Tantric sex magic. One also finds correspondences between the practices of Masonic Craft and Wicca Craft, which is not unusual, in light of Gardner's Masonic membership.

tn 1963, Gardner initiated Raymond Buckland, an Englishman, who lived in Long Island, NY. Buckland and his wife practiced their Craft quietly, but were criticized for their caution. People who did not want to wait for initiation simply started their own covens. Initially, Buckland kept his real name and address out of the media, but information was eventually published which focused attention on him as a spokesperson for the Craft. His first book, Witchcraft From the Inside, revealed absolutely nothing, but was very enticing.

In 1973 Buckland moved to New Hampshire where he founded a new tradition called Seax-Wica, based on Saxon mythology. It has a Saxon basis, but is not a continuation or re-creation of the original Saxon religion. Buckland admits readily that it was an invented tradition, with no hereditary claims. It is a more egalitarian and democratic tradition than Gardnerian Craft, with only one degree, not three. There is no ritual scourging or binding, and covens decide most ritual for themselves, including weather they wish to practice sky-clad or not. The HP and/or HPS are chosen in annual elections.

Buckland had two primary reasons for starting this tradition. Gardnerian witchcraft no longer fulfilled his spiritual needs, and he was dismayed by some of the ego and power trips exhibited within the Craft. In 1977, Buckland moved to E. Va. and established the Seax Wica Seminary, a correspondence school that grew to have more than a thousand students. A book, The Tree.' Complete Book of Saxon Witchcraft was published in 1974. In 1985, Buckland and his 3rd wife moved to CA, and the correspondence school was phased out. At the same time, Buckland's publication of the 'Complete Book of Witchcraft', which was largely a composite of his correspondence course, was highly criticized for revealing too much about the Craft.

When Buckland first brought Gardner/an Witchcraft to America, he had fertile ground -- for the sixties were the beginning of the infamous counter-culture, the Vietnam war, Catholic Church reforms, and probing questions about the validity of Christianity. 'GOD IS DEAD!' was one of the most startling covers Time Magazine ever published. Buckland holds a doctorate in anthropology from Brantridge Forest College in Sussex, England and has written additional books including fiction.

One cannot discuss the History of Craft without including the infamous Alex Sanders (1926-1988). Though never as wide-spread as Gardnerian Craft, because of it's negative publicity, it never took a strong foothold in the US, but Sanders tradition nevertheless found its way into Maryland during the counter-culture, and was the chief Wiccan group in this area until the early eighties.

Sanders, self-proclaimed, King of the Witches, the name of his biographical book, (Coward-McCann, 1969) was known for his flamboyant lifestyle, and also claimed to have been initiated by his grandmother. When he was seven, he found her standing naked in the middle of the kitchen floor. She revealed herself as a true hereditary witch, ordered him to take off his clothes, stand in the circle and bend over. She then nicked his scrotum with a knife and said "You are one of us now." (Sexual rites with her followed during later rituals.) Since Sanders is described as desolated after his grandmother's death. He is said to have burned her 'Book of Shadows' after she died.

In his biography, King of the Witches, Sanders boasted about his alleged and unimaginable feats of magick. He claimed to have created a flesh-and-blood-baby in a rite of ritual masturbation with the help of a male assistant. Sanders said the baby disappeared shortly after its creation and "grew up" as a spirit which took him over during his trance channeling. This spirit, 'Michael', supposedly forced Sanders to carry on at wild parties, insult others and otherwise behave abominably.

Many photographs of Sanders coven appear in his biography. Curiously, in the photos, he is the only one wearing a robe (sometimes only a towel); the others are all naked. He said, this was because Witch Law required the elder of a coven to be apart from the others and easily identifiable. According to witches of his time. Sanders created his Alexandrian tradition after he was refused initiation into various Gardnerian covens. The Alexandrian tradition very closely resembled the Gardnerian one, except it had certain trappings of 'Ceremonial Magick' and the High Priest was preeminent. (see pp. 16, 17,)

Sanders married when he was 21, but the marriage rapidly disintegrated. His wife, Doreen, took their two children and left him when he was 26. After that, Sanders entered a long period of drifting, hard drinking, and sexual flings with men and women. He decided to follow the 'left hand path', and claimed to worship the devil. He usually attracted people who supported him financially, gaining him much media attention and much money. By 1965, he claimed to have 1,623 initiates in 100 covens, who then "persuaded" him to be elected King of the Witches!

In the 60's Sanders was handfasted to Maxine Morris, a nineteen year old Catholic girl, whom he also initiated, and they had one son, Victor in 1971. One year after the birth of his son, they separated. Before Sanders died he left a tape declaring that Victor should succeed him as King of the Witches, but according to Maxine, Victor had no desire to do so and moved to the US. Maxine continued practicing witchcraft after they separated, "(see Drawing Down the Moon, Margot Adler), but Sanders went into seclusion and died in 1988 of lung cancer.

An 'Alexandrian Witchcraft Council of Elders', which claimed 100,000 members in England alone, said no other successor would be elected. Note: In no other tradition is there such a thing as a King or Queen of Witches, though some have claimed that title. (In Los Angeles, there was a well publicized self-proclaimed Queen of the Witches during the seventies.) A Gardnerian or Alexandrian H PS who hives off many covens is sometimes called a Witch Queen'. The Queen wears a garter, and each time she hives off a new coven, she adds a buckle.

Years after his publicity peaked, it was revealed that Sanders passed off the writings and teachings of many others as his own. Stewart Farrar, a journalist, witch, and notable author of many Wiccan books, claims that Sanders, his former teacher, used material from the Gardnerian Book of Shadows, and took credit for it himself. Farrar also writes that Sanders passed off material written by French occultist, Etiphas Levi, and Austrian occultist, Franz Bardon, as his own. But Farrar seems to dismiss Sanders deranged behavior, writing that "Sanders was a born showman, but the fact remains he made a major contribution to the 'Craft' in his own bizarre way."

Some witches believe large Alexandrian witch councils were 'fabrications' of followers of Sanders, but in fact, a few Alexexandrian councils did assemble in DC in the late seventies, where often arguments over dogma and 'whose-who' took place. One report claimed that a dispute resulted in actual physical conflict during one such bru-ha-ha. As a former student of two different Alexandrian teachers, I, (and everyone else), was fully aware of the bad blood which ran between some of the members of the various Alexandrian groups. It is, however, highly unlikely that there were 100,000 witches in Britain, much less members of a council.

In the early 80's a public confrontation occurred in Baltimore, between an Alexandrian HPS and Selena Fox, founder of Circle Sanctuary (Madison, WI). Selena was invited to lecture and help inaugurate a newly formed eclectic pagan web in Baltimore -- but competition was unthinkable to many local Alexandrians, resulting in long standing hostility. Inevitably, inner rivalries developed on both sides. Ultimately, some former eclectic pagans joined the Alexandrians and vice- versa. Others grew weary of the rivalry, formed independent covens and dropped out of sight.

The purpose of the lengthy discussion of Sanders in this paper, is though his tradition was exported to other countries, it was the only recognized 'witch' tradition in Maryland until about 1981. For about seven years, after the confrontation with Fox, it declined, then surfaced again in the late eighties in one form or another. Today, it is still practiced in some local covens, along with it's many trappings and claims of heredity. All though some of the trappings have been modified, certain vestiges remain, and most Alexandrians still teach theirs as a hereditary, hierarchical tradition, unchanged throughout centuries. As with Sanders, the legacy of quantity seems more important to some Alexandrian groups than quality, and their standards for spiritual growth, creativity, moral character and maturity are controversial. European (hierarchical) titles are used when addressing each other. Initiation and degrees appear to be awarded less for spiritual growth than deference to the 'unquestionable' teachings of the hierarchy. Though many join, many also drop out, and few really know how many little groups exist here and there. It is debatable if an apprentice should even initiate into a path where they are not permitted to participate in most rituals until after they are initiated. But such is the nature of the mystique and secrecy, which is the password into some Wiccan covens. Such secrecy greatly entices the novice and uninformed, and promises the expectation of power once they are excepted.

The first formal Neo- pagan organization in the United States was Fereferia founded in California in 1957 by Fred Adams, then a graduate student in LA State. College. Adams, an artist, astrologer, student of mythology and ancient cultures was inspired by utopian authors such as Robert Graves to create his own vision of Utopia, a "response to a planet in crisis". Fereferia, which comes from the Latin words "wilderness festival," was an intricate Goddess and nature-oriented system that preached an abandonment of technology and a return to a peaceful, loosely, organized vegetarian society, with an emphasis on tree crops, which he said were much more productive than the fields. Adams coined the term eco-psychic, and incorporated his group in 1967.

Adams saw a return to the worship of the divine female as essential if mankind was to save itself. While many other pagan groups emphasized the Mother Goddess. Fereferia emphasized the maiden: Kore, or Persephone, the Goddess of Spring. "Evo Kore!" was the salutation among followers. Adam's maiden was playful, sensuous, and erotic. He maintained that humans must recapture their sensuality via nature, a connection lost in industrialization. His partner, Lady Svetlana supported a balanced, perfect planet with about 10 to 20 million non-aggressive persons collected in groups of no more than 1,000. They would live on fruits, berries, nuts and vegetables, and the social structure would be 'egalitarian.' Their rituals were celebrated in open-air henges oriented to the four cardinal points and the polestar. The first henge was established in 1959 in the Sierra Madre Mountains. Choosy about initiates, Adams had only about 50 members by the 1970's. The organization was still in existence in the late eighties.

In 1979 two books were published which changed the whole Wiccan/pagan scene quite dramatically. One was the Spiral Dance, by Starhawk, and the other was Drawing Down the Moon, by Margot Adler. Probably no two books have had as much influence on the changes which took place in the pagan community. Both authors, especially Starhawk, a political feminist, therapist and initiate of the Faery tradition, presented Wicca not so much as secret, authoritarian, hierarchical society, but a self-empowering psychological philosophy -- which was richly pantheistic in nature. Starhawk's book appealed especially to women who found it inspiring and empowering. Wiccans began researching what they had been doing and found that the origins of Witchcraft were not at all what they were first led to believe.

Starhawk wrote three other books after the Spiral Dance, but none caught on the way her first one did. Most of her succeeding books centered around group-structure, therapy, politics and visionary utopian societies.

During the seventies, many women, found a new way to express their deities in feminine forms and terminology. In 1975, a group in Berkeley CA called Covenant of the Goddess (COG) formed an association. It worked to foster good relations in the Neo-pagan and Craft communities. By the 1980's COG had become national in focus with members in at least 15 states.

The Dianic movement is a broad tradition that includes covens that are feminist and/or strongly matriarchal in orientation. The name is taken from Diana. Greek goddess of the moon and the hunt, and one of the principle names for the Goddess in witchcraft. The Goddess is worshipped virtually and exclusively. The emphasis is on rediscovering and reclaiming female power, divinity and consciousness raising. Some covens are all female, while others admit men. Some covens are lesbian. The Dianic tradition sets itself somewhat apart form the mainstream Craft. It espouses feminist spirituality and sisterhood that must struggle against an oppressive, patriarchal society in an effort to bring about positive social and political changes for all.

Dianic craft is largely a phenomenon of the US, where it emerged as an outgrowth of the feminist movement. It began in Dallas Texas, and was founded by Morgan McFarland and Mark Roberts in the late 60's. Rituals revolve around the phases of the moon and were steeped in ancient matriarchal myth and power. Some years later, McFarland and Roberts split, but the Dianic tradition was continued by other groups.

Among the most notable leaders who have shaped Dianic witchcraft are Z. Budapest, and Starhawk. Z., who founded the Susan B. Anthony coven in 1971, believed that witchcraft was 'Wimmin's Religion' not open to men. Starhawk, an initiate of the Faery tradition, has integrated men into Dianic Witchcraft. Rituals are eclectic; some are derived from the Gardnerlan and Faery traditions while others have been created anew.

VICTOR ANDERSON, GWYDION, AND THE FAERY TRADITION - (NEMETON)

Founder of the Faery tradition, Victor Anderson, a near blind poet claimed he was nine years old when he encountered a band of witches who called themselves faeries. Sitting naked in the center of a circle alongside brass bowls filled with herbs, a small old faery woman told him he was a witch. Instinctively, he removed his clothes and was 'sexually' initiated. During this bizarre initiation, the blind child claims to have experienced clear visions of black space, jungles and a vast sky filled with stars and a green moon. There, (during this sexual union) he communed with the Goddess and the Horned God. Whether this strange initiation was a vision, dream or fantasy is debatable. (It is reminiscent ot Alex Sanders initiation, though certainly more poetic.)

As a grown man, the publication of Gardner's 'Witchcraft Today', inspired Anderson to form his own coven. He and the late bard, Gwydion Pendderwen, wrote most of the rituals for the Faery Tradition which emphasized mystical, spiritual and artistic creativity. After Gwidion's meeting with Alexandrian witches in England, he and Anderson incorporated some material from their Book of Shadows. In 1970, Anderson wrote a beautiful book of poems called Thorns of the Blood Rose, which is still cherished by many pagans today. It was published by their organization, Neroeton, which means (sacred grove). Anderson still lives quietly in California with his wife, Cora.

Gwidion wrote many beautiful pagan songs, which were sung at nearly every pagan festival during the seventies and early eighties. He performed with his band, and has recorded two tapes, including Songs of the Old Religion and the Faery Shaman. Gwidion was found dead in his car in 1982, killed in a freak automobile accident. His ashes were buried in Forever Forest, a pagan land retreat in California where trees were grown. Many sad pagans attended his funeral.

Faery tradition identifies different currents of energy within the universe which are used in magick. Faery power is an ecstatic energy of attainment that is beautiful and sensual, but goes beyond the senses: one fills the senses with beauty to go beyond the senses. There is an awareness of unseen reality, a respect for the wisdom of nature and acceptance of oneself and others as a part of nature and a sensual mysticism that involves a celebratory embracing of life and a love of beauty.

The two key teachings center on the iron and pearl pentagrams, the points being meditation at tools. The tradition permits eclecticism. Most initiates are in the 'arts', and incorporate their own poetry, music and invocations into rituals.

It is estimated that there are less than 200 initiates who can trace their initiatory lineage directly to Anderson or Gwidion Pendderwen. Hundreds, perhaps more are estimated to practice neo-Faery traditions as outgrowths from Starhawk's book, The Spiral Dance, on which she draws much from the Faery tradition. Neo-Faery tradition corresponds very closely to pantheism.

Numerous Wiccan groups are immersed within the ancient pre-Christian Celts, claiming a variety of hereditary pagan traditions. But what does that really mean? The Celts did not leave any writings about themselves, even though there is overwhelming evidence of their existence through archeology. Yet, writings on pagan Celts/Picts are derived almost exclusively from the occupying Romans or later medieval Christian writers. Historians are dubious as to how accurate any of those sources might be, since they were interpreted by totally different cultures and religions and were often not very flattering. One of the earliest collection of Celtic myths, the Mabinogian, was not actually written down until the thirteenth century -- claiming its source derived from oral tradition. Le Morte D' Arthur; the prototype of many Arthurian legends, was not written by Sir Thomas Mallory until the sixteenth century. The Arthurlan legends have inspired some of the greatest works in western literature, but were not actually written down until eight hundred years after the Celts disappeared, (about the fifth century.) Nineteenth and twentieth century writers and poets have continued expanding on the myths about the romantic Arthurlan legends.

But what is a myth? It is more then a legend. It is a narrative legacy that carries within it our deepest yearnings and fears, and such were the stories of Arthur, Merlin, Morgan Le Fey, and all the ladies, knights and magic in Camelot. In metaphorical terms, they can contribute greatly to poetic ritual, so long as one recognizes that myths are parables and symbols of the archetypes within us all.

Recently, a few authors, among them R.J. Stewed, Caitlan and John Mathews and Norma Goodrich have participated in the revival of pagan interest in the legendary Celts. However, sometimes these books can be mis-interpreted by die-hard Wiccan traditionalists as verification for their own ancient hereditary claims, rather than for their metaphorical interpretations, which is their true value.

Two organizations that most influenced the early development and spread of neo-paganism were the Church of All Worlds, (Green Egg) and The Pagan Way. By 1980, Pagan Way, which emerged in 1970 as the result of an international collaboration of a core group of people, had disintegrated, but it's rituals composed primarily by American Gardnerian, Ed Fitch, continued to be used by many neo-pagans. Fitch published a lovely magazine called The Crystal Well, from which a book called, Magicikal Rites from the Crystal Well, evolved. He also chaired two pagan Ecumenical Councils, one of which was COG, Covenant of the Goddess.

Church of All Worlds was founded and incorporated in 1967 by Tim Zell (aka. Otter G'zetl/Oberon Zell). As a child, Zell kept to himself and spent most of his time in the woods He manifested psychic gifts in the form of telepathy and claimed he could hear the thoughts of those around him. As a result he shunned large groups of people, because the commotion was too much to handle. A large part of his early years were fraught with serious illness, strange reincarnation dreams, especially of his grandfather, and finally a nervous breakdown. At some point, he says, the telepathy and dreams came to an end

Zell emphasized ecology, and called upon pagans to become involved in environmental issues. Attracted to Science Fiction, he founded his Church in St. Louis after reading Heinlein's, 'Stranger in a Strange Land'. The Church formed it's charter in 1968, and attracted a large following of intellectuals. It and Zell played a major roll in the coalescing and networking of the budding Neo- pagan movement and the alliance of paganism with the environmental moment. Religion, Zell believed, should not be concerned with personal salvation but focus primarily on connecting with all time and space, the life flow of the universe and the oneness of all things.

As in Stranger in a Strange Land, each new group which hived off was called a nest. In t970, Zell formulated and published the "theology of deep ecology," which later became known as the Gaea Hypothesis, the concept of Mother Earth as a sentient being, who in order to survive needs the harmonious balance of all things on the planet. He became well known among pagans, giving keynote addresses at various festivals, where he met his second wife, Moore Ferns, (Morning Glory Zell). They were handfasted after recognizing each other as soul mates and experienced a profound telepathic intimacy.

Zell's magazine, Green Egg, became the hottest pagan newsletter around in the seventies, particularly their 'forum feature'. After a time the Zells added another woman partner to their marriage. In 1976, they headed southwest and stopped for awhile at Coeden Brith in CA, land belonging to Allison Hadow, cofounder of the Neo-pagan organization, Nemeton. (see Faery Tradition) In time, the newsletter collapsed and the Church went into a disorganized and inactive phase. Eight years later, the Zells returned to Coeden Brith and shared a secret with Hadow. They had discovered, among other things, how to create unicorns from baby goats. The most famous of his unicorns was Lancelot, whom he paraded around to various Renaissance Fairs, (including the one in MD). Lancelot eventually was sold (or rented) to the circus.

Today, Zell is a freelance graphic artist and lives in Ukiah CA. Recently he changed his name to Oberon Zell. Green Egg was resurrected as a flashy magazine in 1988, Like the earlier Green Egg, the 'forum feature', where readers write and argue about a variety of issues is one of the most interesting and significant segments of the magazine. Oberon is a colorful fellow and in the last few years sculpted an ongoing series of ancient Goddess figurines with Morning Glory's research and input.

DRUIDISM - ISAAC BONEWITS

One of the brightest (IQ-200) and most colorful figures of the Neo-pagan movement is Isaac Bonewits, known for his leadership in 'Druidism'. He is a priest, magician, scholar, author, bard and activist and has dedicated himself to reviving Druidism as a 'Third Wave' religion, aimed at protecting 'Mother Nature and all Her Children.' Born in Michigan, he moved to San Clemente. CA when he was 12. From his Catholic upbringing, he developed a well developed appreciation for religion.

With a college friend, he formed RDNA (Reformed Druids of N. America) as a religion, and eventually the groves became part of the New Reformed Druids of North America (NRDNA). As a lark, and adventure Bonewits also became a member of the Church of Satan while in college He re-wrote some of their rituals, but had conflicts with Anton LeVey, their leader. The membership, he found, consisted largely of middle-class conservatives who were more 'right-wing and racist' than Satartist. Some believe that LeVey did the whole Satan bit as a joke, to make money on his books, the Satanic Bible. Indeed, the two volumes of the Bible are boring and silly, almost a parody of Wicca..

In 1970, Bonewits graduated from Berkeley with a BA in magic, the first (and last) person ever to do so at a Western educational institution. It caused so much embarrassment to the college, that thereafter Witchcraft and Sorcery were banned from the individual group-study program, but the fame of his degree led to a book contract. In 1971, Real Magic was published, offering Bonewits views on magick, ritual and psychic abilities. A revised edition appeared in 1979, and was reissued in 1988. Bonewits took over the editorship of Gnostica, a Neo-pagan journal published by Llewellyn, a metaphysical press in Minneapolis. He gave the journal a scholarly touch and turned it into the leading journal in the field, but the job lasted only I 1/2 years, because his editorial changes were too high-brow for some, and the magazine lost readers.

While in Minneapolis, Bonewits established a Druid grove called the Schismatic Druids of North America, a splinter group of RDNA. He also joined with several Jewish pagan friends and created the Hasidic Druids of North America. That group formed briefly in St. Louis where it overlapped with the Church of All Worlds. Bonewits wrote, edited, and self-published The Druid Chronicles (Evolved), a compendium of the history, theology, rituals and customs of all the reformed Druid movements, including the ones he invented himself.

He also founded the Aquarian Anti-Defamation League (AADL), a civil liberties and public relations organization for members of minority belief systems such as the Rosicrucians, Theosophists and Neo-pagans, witches, occultists, astrologers and others. By bonding together, he felt, they could fight effectively through the press and courts discrimination and harassment of conservatives. Bonewits served as president of the AADL and devoted most of his income (which came from unemployment insurance) to running it. The AADL scored a few small, but insignificant victories, and after a time Bonewits left and the organization disintegrated.

Bonewits returned to Berkeley and rejoined the NRDNA, where he was elected Archdruid. He started a new journal, and attempted to make the Berkeley grove as Neo-pagan as the groves in Minneapolis and St. Louis, which caused a great deal of friction among longtime members. After a few clashes, Bonewits left the organization, and his journal folded.

In 1979, Bonewits married a second time, and in 1982, a third --to Sally Eaton, the actress who created the role of the hippie witch in the Broadway musical, Hair. They moved to NY, where Bonewits started the fellowship Ar Ndralocht Fbin (Our own Druidism). This fresh Neo-pagan religious organization had no ties to the ancient Druids, or to the RDNA, which by this time was defunct. In 1986, Bonewits and Eaton separated and he eventually returned to Berkeley, but could not find work in Silicon Valley. He moved back to the East Coast, with his intended fourth wife, Deborah, a Wiccan HPS. He continued work as a computer consultant and the building of Ar Ndraiocht F~in. He also began work on a book on the creation, preparation, and performance of effective religious rituals.

Bonewits discovered what he called a '10 year gap' between many of his views -- and their acceptance among most Neo-pagans. In 1973, Bonewits was the first pagan to state publicly that the alleged antiquity of Wicca was hogwash. The Craft, he said, did not go back beyond Gerald Gardner and Doreen Valiente. By 1983, pagans generally acknowledged that Neo-pagan witchcraft was a new religion, not the continuation of an old one. The Anti-Defamation League was also ahead of its time. In 1974-75, pagans were not ready to admit they needed help. A decade later, a number of such organizations were in existence --including Circle, a Neo-pagan networking group, with a national newsletter, led by psychologist, Selena Fox outside of Madison Wisconsin.

By 1985, Bonewits began regularly discussing the need to provide social services for domestic. personal problems and drug dependencies. Neo-pagans, he observed, were brighter and more artistic than average, but also more neurotic. He estimated 80 % came from dis-functional families. Bonewits lobbied for financial support for full time Neo-pagan clergy. (The priesthood is essentially a volunteer job.), but that idea fell on uninterested ears. In 1988, Bonewits was pursuing a goal of buying land and establishing an academically accredited pagan seminary. He still leads a Druid organization and attends various pagan gatherings, giving workshops.

In the 1970's a branch of Neo-pagans who worshipped the Scandinavian/Germanic pantheon formed almost simultaneously, and independently in America, England and Iceland. These groups stressed conservative values of honor, honesty, courage and duty to one's family, kin and friends. The largest is Asatru Free Assembly based in Breckenridge Texas. The group's founder, Stephen McNallen, found little appeal in witchcraft, or magick but was drawn to the Vikings and Norse deities. The group was originally called The Brotherhood, and their journal called The Runestone. The Brotherhood's name was changed to Asatru in 1976. Asatru means 'loyalty to the Aesir'. The Aesir are one of two branches of Norse deities; the race of sky gods, Odin, his wife Frigga, Thor, Loki, Baldur and others. The second branch is the Vanir, concerned with the earth, agriculture, fertility, and the cycles of death and rebirth. Odinism, a form of Norse Paganism, recognizes only the Aesir.

The symbology of Norse Paganism is Norse and Germanic, including runes, (letter/symbols) spears, warriors and the swastika- an ancient symbol that represents Thors’ Hammer and the wheel of the sun. While the warrior imagery has a macho appeal to men, and the religion is heavily patriarchal, women find the Norse goddesses to be strong and assertive. Freya, goddess of fertility, does not shrink from battle. Odin sends his warrior-maiden, Valkyries off to the battlefields to bring dead heroes to Valhalla. (Norse heaven).

The festivals center on the seasonal equinoxes and solstices, and other Norse holidays. Many adherents to Norse Paganism are attracted by the emphasis of blood ties, genetics, and the warrior ethic. Some Norse groups face accusations of white-supremacy and racism, especially since the Nazis borrowed two Norse motifs which became the most hated symbols on earth; the swastika, rune of the Earth Mother and hammer of Thor, Norse god of thunder; and the S rune - trademark of Himmler's Schutzstaffel, the dreaded SS. Neo-Nazis have resurrected these symbols. In Drawing Down the Moon, M. Adler notes that there are a few extreme right-wing Norse pagan groups, who believe they have founded a religion based on the Aryan race; and that some do include Neo-Nazis. Other Norse groups consider these people a fringe element not connected to their path.

What began as a college-class experiment in San Francisco in 1968 resulted in a Neo-pagan religious organization. The NROOGD has no connection with the original Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, a ceremonial magick fraternity, made famous by Ateister Crowley and others. NROOGD recognizes the triple aspect of the Goddess and is organized into covens. The group was entirely self-created and began quite by accident. Aidan Kelly, a poet and one of the founder's of the group described the accidental event in an issue of The Witches Trine. Using ideas from Graves, White Goddess, the students attempted to re-create a Witches' Sabbat for a class project. Kelly and Glenna Turner (COG) composed the ritual, using various notes on the writings of Robert Graves, Margaret Murry, T. C. Lethbridge and G. Gardner. The outline was turned in, and the professor said, "Do it!"

Kelly remarked that they enjoyed the class performance immensely, but hadn't noticed any unusual changes in their perceptions. Later, however, Aidan noted "a subtle change had come over them". In 1968, they repeated the ritual as part of a wedding ceremony, and because it was a celebratory festival, he says, "something did happen". They tried the ritual again at Lammas, a harvest Sabbat in a grove of redwood trees, and by then, Aidan says, '~Ne were hooked." By the end of 1969, the members of NROOGD knew what they were doing was, in fact, a religion. They initiated each other, and began celebrating lunar meetings. At Fall Equinox, when traditionally in Ancient Greece, the Eleusian Mysteries were celebrated, Aidan led the group by torchlight through a state park, crying out the ancient words "Kore! Evohe (Hail) lakkhosi"

" Down the hillside, across the wooden bridges, down to a spring where, as I recall I first spoke the myth of Kore's gift, then back to the circle, where with nine priestesses, we invoked the full Nine Fold Muse, whom I, as Orpheus, audaciously led in a chain dance about the fire; then we all joined the chain, and we danced until all but Isis and I had dropped from exhaustion, until again that silent energy rose and lapped its waves around us fi/ling the entire campground with a warm mistiness that was everywhere, except where I was looking..." (from Drawing Down the Moon)

Kelly said that by the end of 1971 they had been transformed into 'witches'. He believed that the myths of the Goddess were paramount, and that Grave's description was the true function of poetry as religious invocation to the Goddess or Muse. The goal toward which the spiral of reincarnation strives is to become fully human and fully divine.

The invitation to the Lords of the four Towers (elementals or angels) and Gods and Goddesses, called the 'Mighty Ones' are invoked so that the participants can experience that concept. Kelly recognized that Drawing Down of the Sun and Moon originated in antiquity. (It is seen depicted on ancient vases). Margot Adler says, his comments first made her aware of the true shamanistic practices of that ceremony -- that is of (self) becoming part of the divine. That ceremony is still traditionally practiced in many circles. "Kelly's writings on the Craft seem to show more clearly than others, Adler claims, the strongly anti-authoritarian nature of the Craft, since no one has to believe anything" and "There is no authority in the Craft outside each coven." Kelly says that Craft is a religion of ritual rather than theology, or Craft is a religion of poetry, rather than dogma.

Kelly left the Craft in the late 70's. He confessed to having doubts about paganism beginning in 1977. Perhaps some of it was spiritual, but perhaps some was not. A final break came in 1979, when he accepted a teaching position at a Catholic university in San Francisco. He then wrote he came to believe that all visions of a universal Goddess came from the influence of Christianity and concluded, that the Goddess movement was not pagan, but a radically dissenting type of Christian sect. He rationalized that the Goddess is a 'de-Christianized and backdated' version of Mary, and the gentle Wiccan Goddess plays the same role of personal deity and redeemer, that Jesus plays in Christian belief.

Kelly said that if you look at the ancient Goddesses, they were often fierce and uncompassionate, and called the Goddess in current feminist literature a "saccharine" figure, not restored from real history, but created by investing the Blessed Virgin with some of the divine attributes of her son, Jesus. Kelly also commented that his interest in religion was and is poetic, and that he in no way is a true believer in anything, neither Catholicism nor Craft. However, his definition of the way witches and feminists portray the Goddess are far off the mark. Most pagan goddess- oriented groups are quite polytheistic. Witches invoke Kali, Artemis, Demeter, Momgan, Cybele, etc. all of whom were depicted as fierce warriors, law givers, destroyers as well as creatrixes of life.

Shamanistic practice is one whose complete existence revolves around the cosmos, totem animals, ancestral spirits, animism and plants. It is most common in primitive societies. The shaman must function comfortably in two realities, the ordinary reality of the waking world and the non-ordinary world of the shamanic state. Practices vary, but usually a Shaman is trained privately by an elder Shaman of his tribe. A young apprentice is taught arduously, step by step, from an external authority, how to develop his inherent power by the correct interpretation of dreams and visual imagery, sometimes with the aid of hallucinogenic drugs. Once in trance, (also called the 'vision quest') the shaman usually enters the lower world by slipping into a hole. There his spirit- helpers aid him in performing cures, exorcisms or prophesy. Fasting, or eating special plants is shared. An altered sense of consciousness is almost always necessary for healing or other information which comes from ancestral spirits or totem animals, etc.

Modern (urban) shamans use some of these techniques, but it is rarely structured in the same painstaking way as a tribal shaman -- therefore lacks the same impact or power. Modern practitioners usually collect Native American artifacts, do sweat-lodges, fire-walks or vision quests. There may be some, but probably little authentic training, since a tribal shaman's training takes a lifetime. The urban shaman's motive seems to come from a yearning to connect with Mother Earth through Native American spirituality. This began in the counter-culture of the late sixties, and reached a peak during the Harmonic Convergence in the eighties. Lately it seems to have receded.

Since the 1970's many neo-pagan witches have blended shamanistic techniques with their religious and magickal ceremonies. One of the earliest churches to do so was the Church of the Seven Arrows in Colorado. Church of All Worlds has developed its own methods of transcendence through drumming, chanting, dancing, fasting, vision quests, and the acquiring of totemic spirits.

Practitioners of ceremonial magick are usually called occultists and are said to be students of the surviving wisdom of Hermes Trismegistus. (Mythological blend of Egyptian god, Thoth, who governed mystical wisdom, writing and other disciplines, and the Greek god, Hermes, personification of wisdom, patron of magick, the swift winged footed messenger god who carried a magick wand, the caduceus.) According to myth, both Thoth and Hermes revealed to mankind the healing arts, magick, writing, astrology, science and philosophy. Neo-platonic philosopher, lamblichus, credits Hermes with the authorship of thousands of books, as does Manetho, Egyptian priest, who wrote the history of Egypt in Greek. Hermes provided the wisdom of light in the ancient Egyptian Mysteries.

Ceremonial magic varies. Usually groups are called Lodges or Orders; the study is called Hermetics. The key purpose is to pursue the 'Great Work', which is to obtain control of the nature and power of one's own being. A notable occultist of this century was Dion Fortune, student of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, author of many books, and founder of the Society of Inner Light.

In ceremonial magick, the student becomes a 'priest' or channel for the unseen forces, (contacts on the inner planes) and commits himself to the 'work' which is regeneration of himself and the planet. Generally speaking, the function of the advanced initiate is to act as a pioneer in the march of human evolution. The point of meditation is to try and pick up energies, communications or symbols that are pertinent to the ritual task at hand. Leaders of some of these groups, go through years of training, and are usually called adepts. Applicants must take lengthy complex correspondence courses, which are marked regularly before they are admitted as candidates. Those who join such groups, must be willing to combine personal power with service, under the command of adepts. They agree to a disciplined course of study, and are willing to tolerate a fairly strict hierarchy.

Some of the texts include Christian elements, such as establishing a closer relationship with Jesus. Much of the practice is rooted in Kabbala, a Jewish mystical written and oral tradition based on the Tree of Life. During the Renaissance, Christians converted unveiled components of Kabbala into Christian magickal orders, including Rosicrucian societies and Freemasons. Unfortunately, as we are to see next, they ignored the scrupulous Jewish moral criteria for the study of Kabbala.

Towards the end of the nineteenth century, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, a Ceremonial Magick tradition was formed and became the most influential Western occult society of that time, (though it now appears it was built on a foundation of duplicity.) Members included, WB. Yeats, AE. Waite, Aleister Crowtey, and other noted occultist. The Golden Dawn had an elaborate hierarchy composed of three degrees. The key founder was Dr. William Westcott, a London coroner and a Rosicrucian. In 1887 Westcott 'claimed' to have discovered a manuscript in brown ink cipher from a Reverend A.F.Woodford, a Mason. The manuscript appeared to be old, but probably was not. From his Hermetic knowledge, Westcott was able to decipher the manuscript and discovered it concerned fragments of rituals for the "Golden Dawn" a then unheard of occult order.

Westcott asked an occultist friend, S.L. MacGregor to flesh out the fragments into full-scale rituals. Such papers were evidently forged to give the Golden Dawn authenticity and history. (It claimed to be an old German occult order.) Westcott produced papers that showed he had been given a charter to set up an independent lodge in England. The Isis-Urania Temple of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn was established in 1888, with Westcott, Mathers and Dr. W.R. Woodman, Supreme Magus of the Rosicrucian Society of Anglia, as the three chiefs. The secret society caught on and 315 initiations took place during the society's heyday, from 1888 to 1896. At some point in time, it is believed one of their candidates was Gerald Gardner.

An elaborate hierarchy was created consisting of 10 grades or degrees, each corresponding to the 10 sephiroth of the Kabbalistic Tree of Life, plus an 11th degree for neophytes. The degrees were divided into three orders: Outer, Second and Third. One advanced through the Outer Order by examination. Initially, Westcott, Mathers and Woodman were the only members of 2nd Order, which centered around the Kabbatistic Tree of Life, and they claimed to be under the direction of the 'Secret Chiefs of the 3rd Order', who were entities of the astral planes! Mathers rituals were based largely on Freemasonry. After Woodman died, Mathers produced the initiation ritual for the Adeptus Minor rank and renamed it The Ordo Rosae Rubeae et Aurae Crucis, or the Order of the Rose of Ruby and Cross of Gold. Initiation was by invitation only.

There were reports of magickal warfare, astral vampires and armies of demons fighting for control among the unstable personalities of the Golden Dawn, however, during it's height, it probably possessed the greatest known repository of Western magickal knowledge. Three magickal systems were taught. The Key of Solomon, (a grimoire of incantations) Abra-Melin the Mage (Abrgtmelin magick) and Enochlan magick, invented by John Dee, (royal astrolger to Queen Elizabeth I). Materials were incorporated from the Egyptian Book of the Dead, Blake's Prophetic Books, and the Chaldean Oracles. Instruction was given in astral travel, scrying, alchemy, geomancy, tarot and astrology.

In 1917, Ateister Crowley, wrote a satirical book, Moonchild, based on the Golden Dawn's unending internal squabbling and magickal warfare. His most famous writings, however, are volumes called The Equinox, recently reprinted after many years. Israel Regardie, broke his oath by publishing all, in the Complete Golden Dawn System of Magic. Mathers translated Abra- Melin.

Ceremonial magick is not witchcraft, however some Golden Dawn material has been incorporated into numerous neo-pagan witchraft traditions, therefore I have included it in this paper.

Can all of these diverse paths possibly be connected? In many ways, yes. All have magickal roots. Among pagans, all celebrate the divinity of nature, and that divinity is intrinsic, not from without, as in ceremonial magick. Practitioners interchangeably call themselves, Craft. Most revere the feminine and masculine aspects of the cosmos, and observe various seasonal changes of the year. Many use initiations in their progressions, (from the ceremonial). The majority of Craft groups celebrate rites in a circle, but the circle has different criteria for the pagan than it does for the ceremonial.

It is probably true that many pagans started out with interests in Wicca, magick, Shamanism, or New Age, and carried away with it some of it's more positive trappings. However, much of New Age quickly mutated into very expensive gatherings (promising eternal youth or instant healing) through pseudo-shamanism, creative visualization, crystal power, channeling, hypnotherapy, holistic methods, UFO journeys, walk in's, extra-terrestrial dolphins, etc. (Angels are the most recent). Some of these paths may contain elements of value, but one cannot master any art or discipline successfully from one seminar or a few simplistic books. Curious, but confused followers soon dropped out. Others saw a chance to make money and became self-certified teachers, channelers, hypno-therapists, etc.

As said before, many west coast pagan groups augmented or substituted traditional Wiccan rites with Native American shamanistic type practices, and that concept eventually moved east. Other groups supplemented their Wiccan rites with music, creative rituals and Celtic or Faery folklore. Some chose to identify themselves as pagan rather than Wiccan, though today the terms are often interchangeable. A few left Craft and joined the 'New Age' culture.

Today, quite a few pagan circles are pantheistic in nature, (particularly Faery traditions). Still, some cling tenaciously to the old ways.

Much of Wiccan lifestyle, has to a great degree, remained largely immersed within the counterculture. Initially, many seekers find Wicca romantic, visionary and utopian, but after time some outgrow the unconventional lifestyle and grow weary of participating in networks of pagan webs, competing for preeminence. Hierarchical, public and/or ego-centric groups often bring frustration and disappointment to many -- who quietly (or angrily) drop out. Serious practitioners have often re-grouped with other like-minded magickal people and formed their own private covens or clans. Recent Green Egg 'reader survey' shows that 40% of magickal people practice as solitaires, 5% with a group, and 54%, both. Therefore webs change and shift.

As you can see, Craft, like most pursuits in life are organic -- they move and shift, modify. Perceptions change with experience and knowledge. Many of the leaders in this paper changed their ideas as they discovered new currents or systems that worked better for them. Some of the leaders such as Ray Buckland and Aidan Kelly changed quite radically -- others shifted positions and became more adaptable as they grew older and perhaps wiser. The history of the Craft is still as organic and changeable as their traditions and as magickal and provocative as their pioneers.