Chapters 1, 2, and 4 are the writer's personal lament over the fall of Jerusalem; chapters 3 and 5 voice the nation's collective sorrow at the destruction of their holy city. Each chapter of this book takes up a different theme of sorrow: (1) the desolation and misery of Jerusalem, (2) the LORD's anger with His people, (3) reasons why the nations should be comforted, (4) the contrast between Israel's past and present, and 95) the nation's appeal for mercy from the LORD.
There are also several minor themes in the book. Lamentations 2:2-22 describes the horrors of the siege against Jerusalem. Lamentations 2:19 and 4:12-16 condemn the sins of the priests and the prophets. Lamentations 4:17 chides Egypt for failing to help Israel defend itself against the Babylonians. Lamentations 3:40-42 confesses the sin of the nation, while Lamentations 3:22-26 expresses Israel's hope in the LORD.
The Book of Lamentations is written in a very beautiful poetic style. Every chapter (except 5) uses the distinctive qina meter and is acrostic. The fifth chapter contains 22 lines; although it is not acrostic, it is alphabetical, having the same number of lines as the Hebrew alphabet has letters. In the first three chapters there are three lines of poetry for each letter of the acrostic, while the fourth chapter has two lines for each letter. Each of the five poems has a distinctine poetic character and a distinctive theme. There is no unifying structure to the book as a whole. Each poem is complete in itself. The style of the poems bears a striking similarity to those of the Book of Jeremiah. This is especially true with reference to certain images - e.g., the virgin daughter of Israel, the appeal to the righteous udge, and so on.
Lamentations reflects a long tradition of ancient Near Eastern lament poetry. Even before 2000 B.B., the Sumerians lamented the destruction of Ur. Similar laments appear in Babylonian literature as well. This is especially significant since the poetic literature of Israel was primarily in the Mesopotamian tradition.
C. The Song of Solomon. Some older English versions of the Bible call this book Canticles, which means "song" or "chant" (from the Latin word canticulum, "chant"). Jews read this book at the Feast of the Passover in April because they feel it symbolically describes GOD's love for Israel.
Tradition says that Solomon wrote this book, but the Hebrew title may also mean "Song of Songs which refers to Solomon". Some Bible scholars, therefore, believe that the book was written later than Solomon and was dedicated to him.
Unlike all other books of the Old Testament except Esther, the Song of Solomon does not refer to GOD (unless one reads Song of Sol. 8:6 that way). Neither does the book mention sacrifices, the temple, priests, prophets, or religion in general. The New Testament does not quote the Song of Solomon. The book refers to many exotic plants and herbs found in northern Palestine in Old Testament times, and it uses many ancient Aramaic phrases that had disappeared from the language by the time of Jesus.
On the surface, the Song of Solomon describes passionate love. This causes many Bible scholars to disagree over the book's meaning. Most Christians follow the traditional belief that the book tells of GOD's love through allegory or parable (a symbolic story), but others believe that it is simply a collection of Hebrew love poems celebrating the mutual affection of bride and bridegroom. This uncertainty makes the Song of Solomon one of the most controversial books of the Old Testament. There is much debate regarding the literary genre of this book. Some say it is a drama. But unlike drama it exhibits no discernible chronology or sequence of events. If acted out it would consist of little more than one passionate love scene after another. This certainly is not the structure of ancient dramas. Therefore, it appears to be a collection of pastoral poems perhaps originally set to music (and, therefore, lyric poems).
The structure of the book is fragmented. Scholars cannot be sure what the structure is, due to the frequent and abrupt shifts in subject and speakers. (How can one analyze the structure and/or movement of thought if he cannot determine who the speaker is")
The literary method in this book is similar to the stream of consciousness technique. It exposes the inner thoughts of the speaker, focusing on what he or she thinks rather than what is actually happening to them. Specifically, the poet uses the form both of poems (expressing his personal feelings) and of dialogue.
The poems in the book present traditional pastoral themes. There is the traditional invitation to love (Song of Sol. 2:10-15; 7:10-13), the blazon or praise of the beauty and virtue of the beloved (cf. 2:1-3; 4:1-15), a description of the delights of love (1:14,16-17), and a complaint of unfulfilled love (8:1-4). The pastoral poem often is used to speak of human love.
V. Wisdom Books. The books of Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes contain most of the Old Testament's gnomic (wisdom) poetry. Other wisdom poetry is found in Psalms 1, 4, 10, 14, 18:20-26, 19, 37, 49, 73, 90, 112, and also in Habakkuk 3.
Gnomic poetry can be divided into three categories: (1) popular proverbs that express practical truths in short, colorful parallels to nature, (2) riddles or parables with a spiritual meaning, (3) lengthy discussions of the problems of life.
Many wisdom poems of the ancient Near East try to draw a parallel between the world of nature and the spiritual life of man. For example, the Egyptian proverbs of Amenem-opet (ca. 1150-950 B.C.) seem to resemble Proverbs 22:17-23:23. However, we have no evidence that the Book of Provers copied its ideas from Egyptian proverbs or other ancient literature. Hebrew wisdom poems record divine wisdom, the revealed truth of GOD. During the period of the judges, Jewish leaders used riddles, proverbs, and fables to communicate GOD's truth (Judg. 14:14,18; 8:21; 9:6-21).
In the most ancient times, kings kept wise men in their royal courts for advice. A special class of wise men served in the royal courts of Israel from the time of King Saul (ca. 1043 B.C.). These wise men advised the king in matters of administration (Jer. 18:18). Younger men studied under these counselors and began to write down their teachings (Prov. 1:6; 22:17). Later, these writings were collected to make the wisdom literature of the Old Testament.
There were also many sages who did not serve in the court. Their wisdom is sometimes known as "popular wisdom". Such sages apparently functioned throughout the Old Testament era, just as they did among other ancient Near Eastern peoples. We read of the wisdom of the city of Abel (II Sam. 20:18). Jeremiah spoke of the wise men as sources of knowledge alongside the priests and prophets (18:18).
Hebrew wisdom poetry focused upon GOD as the LORD of wisdom (Job 12:13 ff.; cf. Isa. 1:2; Dan. 2:20-23). These poems praised GOD as the One who knows all things and who has infinite power to accomplish His holy will (Job 10:4; 26:26). The wisdom poems tell us that GOD created all the universe and that all life is under His control (cf. Isa. 28:23-29; 31:2). The wisdom writers explain that GOD truly knows what is good and evil; He rewards the righteous and punishes the wicked (cf. Psa. 1:37; 43).
Job contains a good example of this teaching when he sighs that man can never understand the full extent of GOD's wisdom (Job 28:12-21). Job admits that man can understand only what GOD reveals to him (Job 28:23,28).
The wisdom poetry of the Old Testament offers practical wisdom as well as religious wisdom. It attempts to apply GOD's truth to the many problems of everyday life. The Old Testament writers declare that anyone who does not know GOD does not have true wisdom and is doomed to failure (Isa. 5:21; Jer. 18:18-23).
It has already been suggested that Israel's wisdom movement was part of a movement found throughout the ancient Near East. The Old Testament itself refers to wise men outside Israel. Solomon's wisdom "excelled the wisdom of all the children of the east country, and all the wisdom of Egypt. For he was wiser than all men; than Ethan the Ezrahite, and Human, and Chalcol, and Darda, the sons of Mahol" (I Kings 4:30-31). Obadiah prophesied the destruction of the wisdom of Edom (Obs. 8) and Jeremiah spoke of the wisdom of Teman (Jer. 49:7). Job was an Edomite. Proverbs 30:1-31:19 is attributed to the sages of Massa in North Arabia.
These are records of wisdom both within and outside the ancient Near East. For example, compare Proverbs 17:28 and its parallel in Sanskrit:
"Even a fool, when he holdeth his peace, is counted wise; and he that shutteth his lips is esteemed a man of understanding" (Prov. 17:28).
"Even a fool covered with fine clothes is fair in the assembly up to a point; yea a fool is fair so long as he utters no word".
Much of the similarity is due to the common observations of men.
The Egyptian sage Ipuwer (ca. 2200 B.C.) described the coming of a righteous Pharaoh (king) "who will bring rest to men as a shepherd to his sheep". This is quite similar to Psalm 72 and other messianic Psalms. Such a similarity certainly suggests some kind of motif common to both ancient Egypt and Israel, but the exact relationship is difficult to determine.
The Book of Psalms contains other wisdom poems. Especially prominent is the struggle concerning the existence of evil. How could a good GOD have made such a godless world (e.g., Psa. 14; 19; 90)? How can a good GOD allow the wicked to prosper and the godly to suffer (e.g., Psa. 10; 37; 49; 73)?
Wisdom influences not only the prophetic and poetic movements but the apocalyptic movement as well. Daniel was known as a man "of illumination, insight, and wisdom like the wisdom of the gods" (NASB). He was said to possess "an extraordinary spirit, knowledge and insight, interpretation of dreams, explanation of enigmas, and solving of difficult problems" Dan. 5:11-12, NASB). Daniel was told that those who are wise would understand, i.e., act wisely until the end. Revelation 13:18 describes wisdom as the ability to interpret visions.
Jesus is depicted as a sage, too. He stands in the midst of His disciples authoritatively instructing them in proper (wise) living (e.g., Matt. 11:28 ff.; cr. Ecclesiasticus 51:23-27; Prov. 8:4-21). He described Himself as being greater in wisdom than Solomon, and chided the Pharisees for not flocking to receive His instruction (Matt. 12:42; Luke 11:31).
A. Proverbs. The Book of Proverbs collects a variety of sayings, expressed in short poems that are easy to memorize. The motto of the book is "The fear of the LORD is the beginning of wisdom". Christians have found a great deal of help from Proverbs because it contains so much practical advice for daily living.
In general, the Book of Proverbs describes the source and value of wisdom. It reminds us that GOD gives all true knowledge and that we should use knowledge as a sacred trust from Him.
The Book of Proverbs is certainly in the tradition of wisdom literature. Chapters 1-24 are especially interesting, since they form a literary collection similar to the proverbs of the Egyptian sage Ptahhotep (ca. 2500-2400 B.C.). This Egyptian collection opens with a main title including the name and title of the author (cf. Prov. 1:1). This is followed by his discourse. Then comes a subtitle (cf. Prov. 10:1), followed by a series of maxims. Some have argued that Proverbs 8 must be a later product, since wisdom is treated as a human personality. Yet this occurs in Egyptian wisdom as early as the writings of Ptahhotep. Mesopotamian wisdom includes proverbs parallel to those in the Bible in style, theme, and poetic mechanisms.
Proverbs 1-9 is a section with a single poetic texture (i.e., it uses the same kinds of imagery and symbols throughout) and a single narrative viewpoint. However, the section employs a variety of poetic parallelism and literary genres - e.g., the lyric poem, dramatic monologue, encomium (praise of something), narrative, and dramatized scene. In short, it appears to be a discourse by a single sage. The entire passage is developed in a series of conflicts setting forth a kind of plot - i.e., pursue the good (wisdom) and avoid the foolish. The plot contrasts wisdom (depicted as a lady) and a harlot; a good and an evil man; life and death; wisdom and folly; wisdom and evil. The unifying topic is wisdom.
B. Job. The French novelist Victor Hugo once called the Book of Job "the greatest masterpiece of the human mind". We know very little about the man who wrote Job, but he probably lived before the time of Moses. The prologue of the book recounts how Job was a righteous man who suffered many calamities. The main section of the book traces the arguments and questions that Job raised about his sufferings. Job's friends offered many of the ideas that people have traditionally used to explain suffering. They said that GOD might have sent this crisis to punish Job's sin (chaps. 4-31), or to discipline him (chaps 32-37).
We see Job growing through the agony of trying to understand why GOD allowed all of these distresses to fall upon him. At first he pleads for death (chaps. 3,6), then for mercy (7:12-21). GOD does not respond, and so Job wishes someone would resolve the quarrel between them (9:11-21; 10:8-17). Finally, he decides to face his problems with courage (13:13-28), and he asks GOD to bring him through his painful trials (16:18-17:3). Job declares that he trusts GOD to preserve his life in spite of all the pain and heartache he has experienced (19:25-27). He concludes that suffering is a mystery to man; only GOD knows the reason for it. When GOD finally speaks to Job, He gives him no hint as to why he has had to endure such distress.
Ancient Near Eastern literature attests several poems treating the same theme as Job - the theme of the righteous sufferer. Before 2000 B.C., Sumerians recited and read the poem now entitled "Man and His GOD". A lengthy treatise on this theme appeared amid the Babylonian literature; it was called Ludlul bel Nemeqi, or "I Will Praise the God of Wisdom".
Job is difficult to classify as to literary genre. It has been called wisdom, drama, and tragedy. Leland Ryken concludes that it is none of these, but a comic narrative that includes elements of all of the other three genres. By "comic", he means it parallels the structural pattern of the classical Greek comedies - i.e., the hero is plunged into tragedy and then is moved back into prosperity. The Book of Job gives more attention to the tragic element than the Greek comedies do. It is much like the modern problem play, which poses a problem, offers several solutions, and leaves us to infer the final answer.
The structure of Job is very artfully designed. The prose introduction and prologue constitute the upward parts of a U-shaped plot. The middle poetic section (the discourse) moves ahead slowly, often folding back upon itself. To the reader unaccustomed to Oriental style, this part of the book might seem to lack coherence. Yet GOD's final vindication of Job is a clear and compelling conclusion.
C. Ecclesiastes. The ancient Jews read the Book of Ecclesiastes during the months of September and October. Tradition says King Solomon wrote it (Eccles. 1:1,12).
Ecclesiastes argues that life has meaning only when a person serves GOD. If a person follows other goals, he will fall into utter hopelessness: "vanity of vanities" (Eccles. 1:2). Ecclesiastes says that a person can find happiness only when he pursues godliness, not when he pursues pleaasure or comfort. The world was created to glorify GOD and only what a person does for GOD will endure. "Fear GOD, and keep his commandments: for this is the whole duty of man" (Eccles. 12:13).
The generally pessimistic outlook on "life under the sun" is paralleled in other ancient Near Eastern literature. Mesopotamian literature depicts such an outlook in the "Gilgamesh Epic" and the "Dialogue of Pessimism". However, Ecclesiastes does not conclude with pessimism, as do these other works. The writer declares that life is "vanity of vanities" only if it is lived apart from GOD. Though His ways are inscrutable, GOD gives meaning to life.
In its stance and literary technique, Ecclesiastes belongs to the genre of wisdom literature. The narrator speaks as a sage, advising his hearers on the path of wisdom. He attributes personality to impersonal objects and concepts. He uses brief narrative, portraiture, description, and commands to the reader - all well-known wisdom conventions. The key phrase, "life under the sun" or "under heaven", occurs 30 times. This provides a single theme throughout the book.
Ecclesiastes makes skillful use of the quest motif (a man seeking for the wise life), so frequently found in wisdom literature as a whole. There is no apparent narrative unity in this book; the unity is logical and stylistic. Its imagery embraces nearly every activity and situation of human living.
The Music and Instruments of the Bible
Introduction to the Book of Psalms
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