The Historical Books of the Old Testament

The Historical Books in the English Bible are Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. At first the Books of 1 and 2 Samuel were one book as were Kings, Chronicles, and Ezra-Nehemiah. The Septuagint, the ancient Greek translation, was the first to divide the books. The Latin Vulgate and English versions have continued this practice. (The Hebrew division of these books did not occur until the Middle Ages.) Our English translators, again following the Septuagint, arrange the Historical Books in a loosely chronological order. This continuous narrative traces the history of Israel from the conquest of Canaan by Joshua (about 1400 BC) to the restoration of the Jews during the Persian period (about 400 BC).

The Hebrew canon arranges the Historical Books differently. The Hebrew canon consists of three divisions (Law, Prophets, and Writings). Joshua, Judges (omitting Ruth), 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings are in the second division, the Prophets. Within this division they are designated the Former Prophets (the Latter Prophets are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve Minor Prophets). First and Second Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah occur in the Writings as the final four books of the Hebrew canon. They, however, have a reverse order: Ezra, Nehemiah, and 1 and 2 Chronicles. The Books of Ruth and Esther also appear in the Writings. They, with the Song of Solomon, Lamentations, and Ecclesiastes, constitute the five Megilloth (scrolls) read by the Jews at various feasts.

The Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) continue the narrative of Genesis through Deuteronomy which tells of Israel's birth and rise as a nation. Deuteronomy concludes with the appointment of Joshua as Moses' successor who eventually led Israel into the land. Joshua through 2 Kings relate the occupation of the land of Canaan, the rise of the Hebrew monarchy, and conclude with the destruction and exile of the nation by the Babylonians.

The heading Former Prophets indicates that the rabbis did not read these books as histories (in our modern sense). Although written in narrative form, they were prophetic. Like the oracles of the Latter Prophets, these "histories" declared the word of the LORD. They do not give an exhaustive history or a political account (as modern history writing would do). Rather, they interpret Israel's history from the theological perspective of GOD's covenant with Israel. As prophetic writings, they present GOD's evaluation and verdict on the history of Israel. They are not merely a history of Israel's religion either. (The Hebrew historians did not differentiate between Israel's political fortunes and its religious life.) The narrative in Joshua through 2 kings shows that Israel's success or failure as a nation was determined by GOD's intervention in its history. GOD's kindness or judgment was in response to the spiritual and moral condition of the people with respect to their fidelity to the Mosaic covenant (Exod. 20-24). In particular, the Former Prophets - especially 1 and 2 Kings - were influenced by Deuteronomy's understanding of the covenant. This understanding emphasizes covenant loyalty and exclusive worship of GOD and explains how history is affected by a nation's morality.

History Writing in Bible Times
How to define history and history writing has been one of the unending problems of philosophy. In ordinary use history writing designates an extended narrative chronicle of the facts that a writer considers important to understanding a period, an individual, a movement, a crisis, or some other event or series of events. Several principles are very important in understanding history writing. They apply as well to modern, ancient, or biblical history writing. Selectivity No work of history records all the facts and details. In the first place, this would be an impossible task; and in the second, such a history would include all sorts of data not germane to the author's intent. Each author selects that information which helps achieve his or her goal for writing. That is, each author is unavoidably selective in the material reported. The biblical writers were likewise selective. For example, why didn't the writers of Kings and Chronicles include more detail on the architecture of the temple? Much more could have been said about details of its construction. But at some point they chose not to include more information, either because they did not have it or because in light of the overall intent of their narrative they felt a sufficient amount had been included. Another example: some details of the life of David are only known from either Samuel or Chronicles. Neither historian set out to write all that could be known. Perspective No writer of history stands outside history. He or she is always a part of a particular culture and holds or rejects particular value systems. These attitudes and values affect the writer's selection of data, often even in unconscious ways. They influence the way a writer organizes material and impart to it a certain "slant". Biblical historians also wrote from the vantage of a particular historical moment and culture. For example, the writer of Chronicles lived in the postexilic period when the northern tribes had long been carried into captivity. He did not give us a history of both kingdoms (like that found in 1 and 2 Kings), but only of the kingdom of Judah, which survived as a political entity in his own day. Purpose While perspective in this context refers to items influencing the writer in more unconscious and subliminal ways, purpose refers to the writer's conscious agenda. Historians often write to demonstrate the validity of a particular thesis. Some examples are the economic causes of the American revolution, the adequacy or inadequacy of a Marxist interpretation of European history, and the impact of the idea of "Manifest Destiny" on the expansion of America. No historian, ancient or modern, escapes these foundational concerns. The biblical historians also wrote with particular purposes and goals. The compiler or author of the Book of Kings lived during the Babylonian captivity. Those to whom he wrote had witnessed the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of David's dynasty ruling there. But what of GOD's promises that David would never lack a son sitting on his throne and the GOD had chosen to dwell in Jerusalem? The writer of Kings recounted the history of the kingdoms to show that GOD had not failed. The exile did not show that GOD could not keep His promises, but to the contrary showed that He is indeed in control of history. The biblical historians were seeking to minister to the needs of the generations to which they wrote. We are not just interested in what they said, but also in why they chose to present it the way they did. Not just the individual narratives are important, but also the thrust and intent of the entire work. Similar principles apply to historical writings from the other cultures of the biblical period. For example, the annals of the Assyrian kings were summaries of important events in each year of the reigning king. The scribes who wrote them assumed the superiority and right of the Assyrian empire (perspective). They wrote in order to glorify the reigning king (purpose) and would not report any reverses or defeats suffered by him (selectivity).

History Writing in Bible Times

How to define history and history writing has been one of the unending problems of philosophy. In ordinary use history writing designates an extended narrative chronicle of the facts that a writer considers important to understanding a period, an individual, a movement, a crisis, or some other event or series of events.

Several principles are very important in understanding history writing. They apply as well to modern, ancient, or biblical history writing.

Selectivity

No work of history records all the facts and details. In the first place, this would be an impossible task; and in the second, such a history would include all sorts of data not germane to the author's intent. Each author selects that information which helps achieve his or her goal for writing. That is, each author is unavoidably selective in the material reported.

The biblical writers were likewise selective. For example, why didn't the writers of Kings and Chronicles include more detail on the architecture of the temple? Much more could have been said about details of its construction. But at some point they chose not to include more information, either because they did not have it or because in light of the overall intent of their narrative they felt a sufficient amount had been included. Another example: some details of the life of David are only known from either Samuel or Chronicles. Neither historian set out to write all that could be known.

Perspective

No writer of history stands outside history. He or she is always a part of a particular culture and holds or rejects particular value systems. These attitudes and values affect the writer's selection of data, often even in unconscious ways. They influence the way a writer organizes material and impart to it a certain "slant".

Biblical historians also wrote from the vantage of a particular historical moment and culture. For example, the writer of Chronicles lived in the postexilic period when the northern tribes had long been carried into captivity. He did not give us a history of both kingdoms (like that found in 1 and 2 Kings), but only of the kingdom of Judah, which survived as a political entity in his own day.

Purpose

While perspective in this context refers to items influencing the writer in more unconscious and subliminal ways, purpose refers to the writer's conscious agenda. Historians often write to demonstrate the validity of a particular thesis. Some examples are the economic causes of the American revolution, the adequacy or inadequacy of a Marxist interpretation of European history, and the impact of the idea of "Manifest Destiny" on the expansion of America. No historian, ancient or modern, escapes these foundational concerns.

The biblical historians also wrote with particular purposes and goals. The compiler or author of the Book of Kings lived during the Babylonian captivity. Those to whom he wrote had witnessed the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of David's dynasty ruling there. But what of GOD's promises that David would never lack a son sitting on his throne and the GOD had chosen to dwell in Jerusalem? The writer of Kings recounted the history of the kingdoms to show that GOD had not failed. The exile did not show that GOD could not keep His promises, but to the contrary showed that He is indeed in control of history.

The biblical historians were seeking to minister to the needs of the generations to which they wrote. We are not just interested in what they said, but also in why they chose to present it the way they did. Not just the individual narratives are important, but also the thrust and intent of the entire work.

Similar principles apply to historical writings from the other cultures of the biblical period. For example, the annals of the Assyrian kings were summaries of important events in each year of the reigning king. The scribes who wrote them assumed the superiority and right of the Assyrian empire (perspective). They wrote in order to glorify the reigning king (purpose) and would not report any reverses or defeats suffered by him (selectivity).

The authors of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings are unknown since the works are anonymous. The six books show independence but also have a relationship. Each book can be read as a literary whole, possessing its peculiar literary arrangement and theological emphasis. They also evidence continuity based on their common subject and, in some cases, their common forms of expression. Each contributes to the consecutively told history of Israel. The books overlap in other respects too. David's reign is related primarily in 2 Samuel but continues into 1 Kings 1-2. The death of Joshua is recounted in both Joshua (24:29-33) and Judges (2:8-10). Deuteronomy's style of language and its basic approach to interpreting history significantly influenced all four works.

The traditional view emphasized the discontinuity of the six books, attributing the four works to different authors. Even the early rabbis, however, attributed Judges and 1 and 2 Samuel to the prophet Samuel (with 2 Samuel finished by others). A convincing reconstruction of the history of the writing of these four works has to account both for their differences and distinctions and the apparent continuity of the books.

Some critical scholars believe that Joshua is best understood as the conclusion of the Pentateuch rather than the introduction to the history of Israel in the land. These scholars use the term Hexateuch (six-book unit) to highlight the unity of Genesis through Joshua. The remaining books, Judges through 2 Kings, are regarded as a separate composition. The editor of this history combined extensions of the sources that underlie the Hexateuch.

A competing opinion among scholars treats Deuteronomy through 2 Kings as the work of an unnamed editor deeply influenced by the themes of Deuteronomy. This editor wove sources together during the exile (about 550 BC). This history was at first unrelated to and independent of the Tetrateuch (Genesis through Numbers). The composition of this history involved lengthy and complex processes of sewing together written sources, authoring new material, and editing the whole into one narrative. Scholars debate the details of date and authorship, some suggesting one author and others proposing several with two or three editions of the work. Its proponents, however, generally accept that the core of Deuteronomy was authored in the mid-seventh century by an author drawing on ancient traditions from the time of Moses. Later an individual or group supporting Josiah's reforms expanded and reworked this core into the bulk of Deuteronomy through 2 Kings. This expanded history was later issued with minor additions to reflect the fall of Jerusalem in about 550 BC.

In contrast to the traditional rabbinic opinion, these two critical theories emphasize the continuity of the Former Prophets. But in doing so they create a number of problems of their own. Scholars, for example, are not agreed on the process of compilation or on who the nameless editors were (priests, prophets, or sages?). The criteria used by source critics for discovering the underlying literary strands in the Former Prophets are as suspect as those employed for the Pentateuch. Most troubling to these composition theories is their dependence on a seventh-century date for Deuteronomy. Its literary form has, however, been shown to be much older than proposed. In fact, it corresponds in general to the political treaties among the Hittites (about 1400-1200 BC).

The challenge is to give due both to the continuity and disunity evidenced in the Former Prophets. The four books were likely once independent works, largely in their present form. These underwent a brief period of editorial integration after the destruction of Jerusalem. What they share with Deuteronomy is best attributed to the imposing figure of the prophet Moses. His theology of history, reflected in Deuteronomy, became the theological model by which Israel interpreted its history. The Former Prophets play out what in essence Moses had forewarned concerning GOD's blessing and cursing (Deut. 28).

First and Second Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah give a second perspective on Israel's history, complementing the account of Genesis through 2 Kings. First and Second Chronicles parallel this first history from creation to the destruction of Jerusalem. Ezra-Nehemiah continues the account with the return of the exiles from Babylon and the restoration of the religious life of Judah (about 400 BC). Since these books were written during and after the exile when there was no monarchy, they focus on the religious life of restored Israel. Temple worship and observance of the law of Moses are particularly emphasized.

Like the Former Prophets, the Books of Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah have been ascribed to a single author or compiler. The rabbinic tradition attributed these four books to Ezra the scribe. Some modern scholars who have emphasized the unity of the books in language, content, and perspective follow this position. Others, agreeing in principle with the idea of a single author or compiler, have proposed an unnamed author (the "Chronicler"). The Chronicler drew on sources, including the memoirs of Ezra and Nehemiah and the Books of Samuel and Kings. He completed his "Chronicler's History" no earlier than 400 BC.

In a variation on this view, two different viewpoints are discerned within the history. First and Second Chronicles plus Ezra 1-6 was an early edition by the Chronicler (about 515 BC), in conjunction with the prophetic ministries of Haggai and Zechariah. At this time Israel's hope was for a restored Davidic monarchy (I Chron. 3:17-19; compare Ezra 1:8; 3:8; 5:1-2; 6:14; Hag. 2:6-9; 3:23; Zech. 3:1-4:14; 6:9-15). The inclusion of Ezra 7-10 (Ezra's reforms) and Nehemiah's material came later (about 400 BC). At this later time the community shifted its emphasis from the monarchy and the religious role of David to the law of Moses. Some prefer, therefore, to speak of a "Chronistic school" rather than one person.

The similar language and content of Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah points to a single work. Both works stress, for instance, the role of the temple and worship customs. Further evidence of linkage is 2 Chronicles 36:1-21, which recounts the pilfering of temple articles, and Ezra 1:7-11, which inventories the restored temple treasuries. Most significant is the verbatim agreement of 2 Chronicles' final verses (36:22-23) with the opening paragraph of Ezra (1:1-3a). These verses relate the decree of Cyrus announcing the release of the Jews from captivity. In fact, the last verse of 2 Chronicles ends in the middle of a thought that is completed in the Ezra version (1:3b). This duplication of verses, it is argued, indicates that the books were once bound as a consecutive whole. Evangelical as well as critical scholars hold this view of a single work. Conservative scholarship uniformly holds that the Chronicler used reliable sources and did not materially distort them.

Other scholars, both evangelical and critical, argue that Ezra and Nehemiah were the authors of their own works. Proponents of this position point to significant differences in both language and content between Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah. (For instance, Chronicles does not address the subject of mixed marriages.) Finally, the Hebrew arrangement of Ezra-Nehemiah followed by 1 and 2 Chronicles is said to evidence that the two were not authored as one piece. The common paragraph shared by the two can best be explained as a much later attempt to bind together what were once separate books.

The arrangement of the Hebrew canon, however, is not a decisive witness for either position. The arrangement is better explained by appeal to the envelope construction created by the repetition of the decree of Cyrus. In this arrangement, like bookends, Ezra begins and 2 Chronicles closes with the decree of Cyrus. This proclamation of freedom embodied the abiding hope that GOD would yet again gather the Jews dispersed among the nations. By closing the Hebrew canon on this note of freedom, the compiler emphasized this proclamation and therefore encouraged the Jews throughout the Diaspora.

In conclusion, the differences between the books cautions against concluding without more evidence that the works of Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah constituted an original Chronicler's history.

Ruth and Esther are included among the five Megilloth. These books - Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther - are related to the five festivals (and fasts) of the Jewish calendar. Ruth, set at the harvest, is read at the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), which celebrates the spring gathering (May-June). Esther's story gives the origins of the Feast of Purim and is read on that occasion (14th and 15th of Adar [Feb.-Mar.]). Purim is the only Old Testament feast not legislated by the Mosaic Law.

QUEENS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
(Listed alphabetically)

NAME REFERENCE IDENTIFICATION

Abijah II Kings 18:2 Mother of King Hezekiah of Judah

Athaliah II Kings 11 Evil daughter of Ahab and Jezebel; mother of King Ahaziah of Judah (only woman to rule Judah in her own right)

Azubah I Kings 22:42 Mother of King Jehoshaphat of Judah

] Bathsheba II Sam. 11-12; I Kings 1-2 Wife of Uriah, then wife of David and mother of Solomon

Esther Esth. 2-9 Jewish wife of King Ahasuerus of Persia

Hamutal II Kings 23:31; 24:18 Mother of King Jehoahaz and King Zedehiah of Judah

Hephzibah II Kings 21:1 Mother of King Manasseh of Judah

Jecoliah II Kings 15:2 Mother of King Azariah of Judah

Jedidah II Kings 22:1 Mother of King Josiah of Judah

Jehoaddin II Kings 14:2 Mother of King Amaziah of Judah

Jezebel I Kings 16:31; 18:13,19; 19:1-2; 21:1-25; II Kings 9:30-37 Evil wife of King Ahab of Israel (who promoted Baal worship, persecuted GOD's prophets, and planned Naboth's murder)

Maacah I Kings 15:10; II Chron. 15:16 Mother of King Abijah and grandmother of King Asa of Judah

Meshullemeth II Kings 21:19 Mother of King Amon of Judah

Michal I Sam. 18:20-28; 26:44; II Sam. 3:13-16; 6:20-23 Daughter of Saul and first wife of David

Naamah I Kings 14:21,31 Mother of King Rehoboam of Judah

Nehushta II Kings 24:8 Mother of King Jehoiachin of Judah

Queen of Sheba I Kings 10:1-13 Foreign queen who visited Solomon

Zebidah II Kings 23:36 Mother of King Jehoiakim of Judah

QUEENS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT (Listed alphabetically)
NAME	REFERENCE	IDENTIFICATION
Abijah	II Kings 18:2	Mother of King Hezekiah of Judah
Athaliah	II Kings 11	Evil daughter of Ahab and Jezebel; mother of King Ahaziah of Judah (only woman to rule Judah in her own right)
Azubah	I Kings 22:42	Mother of King Jehoshaphat of Judah
] Bathsheba	II Sam. 11-12; I Kings 1-2	Wife of Uriah, then wife of David and mother of Solomon
Esther	Esth. 2-9	Jewish wife of King Ahasuerus of Persia
Hamutal	II Kings 23:31; 24:18	Mother of King Jehoahaz and King Zedehiah of Judah
Hephzibah	II Kings 21:1	Mother of King Manasseh of Judah
Jecoliah	II Kings 15:2	Mother of King Azariah of Judah
Jedidah	II Kings 22:1	Mother of King Josiah of Judah
Jehoaddin	II Kings 14:2	Mother of King Amaziah of Judah
Jezebel	I Kings 16:31; 18:13,19; 19:1-2; 21:1-25; II Kings 9:30-37	Evil wife of King Ahab of Israel (who promoted Baal worship, persecuted GOD's prophets, and planned Naboth's murder)
Maacah	I Kings 15:10; II Chron. 15:16	Mother of King Abijah and grandmother of King Asa of Judah
Meshullemeth	II Kings 21:19	Mother of King Amon of Judah
Michal	I Sam. 18:20-28; 26:44; II Sam. 3:13-16; 6:20-23	Daughter of Saul and first wife of David
Naamah	I Kings 14:21,31	Mother of King Rehoboam of Judah
Nehushta	II Kings 24:8	Mother of King Jehoiachin of Judah
Queen of Sheba	I Kings 10:1-13	Foreign queen who visited Solomon
Zebidah	II Kings 23:36	Mother of King Jehoiakim of Judah

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