Ref: www.historicpages.comWere it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter. -Thomas Jefferson, 1787.For my part I entertain a high idea of the utility of periodical publications; insomuch as I could heartily desire, copies of ... magazines, as well as common Gazettes, might be spread through every city, town, and village in the United States. I consider such vehicles of knowledge more happily calculated than any other to preserve the liberty, stimulate the industry, and ameliorate the morals of a free and enlightened people.- George Washington, 1788.
Congress shall make no law ... abridging the freedom of speech or of the press... -Article One, Bill of Rights of the United States Constitution, 1789.
Here is the living disproof of the old adage that nothing is as dead as yesterday's newspaper... This is what really happened, reported by a free press to a free people. It is the raw material of history; it is the story of our own times. -Henry Steel Commager, preface to a history of the New York Times, 1951
Notes on the History of the Press Importance: - Preserve and spread human knowledge (Renaissance)
- Overcome non-literacy as a barrier between social groupsEarly History:
In Asia (China): - Block print since the 6th century- Movable type since 1040/48
In Europe: - Block print since the 12th century (Marco Polo)- Movable type since the 15th century (Gutenberg)- In 50 Years, printing processes spread all over Europe (Italy, England, France, Netherlands)First Newspapers: 1609 - earliest known one-page-newspapers
England: America:- Weekly News (1622-1641)- Daily Courant (1702)- The Times (1785)- Daily Telegraph (1855), after abolition of the taxes- 1690 in Boston: suppressed by the (British) government- 1706 "Boston News-Letter"- Increased 400% from 1750 till 1755- Support the cause of independence
Difficulties of the first newspapers: transport, control, no advertising mechanisms, non-literacy, censorship and taxes
Evolution of the printing business: Before the 19th century: publisher = printer = bookseller
After the 19th century: (printing machine, Friedrich König), Division of the work tasksExpansion of US newspapers: Country expanded westward, newspaper circulation enhanced, technological advances, production cheaper paper, development of rotary press to substitute the traditional flatbed press.
First News Agency: Six New York papers joined together, organization called Associated Press (AP). After the American Civil War the AP expanded serving different newspapers with different political views. It presented news in an objective way.
Papers founded: Great number of publishers/ editors, New York Herald founded, widely read newspaper, with emphasis on scandalous news, coverage of foreign news.
Yellow Journalism: Newspapers began containing advertisements, different type of journalism developed by Pulitzer, transformed newspapers with sensational news, used drawings and comic strips.
20th Century: Dominated by the British Press, Daily Mail launched in 1896, first newspaper based on advertising income. Daily Mirror released in 1903, targeted for woman, after World War I, converted into the first tabloid newspaper, usually half the size of a normal newspaper, condensed reports, a greater number of illustrations.
Ownership: It grew after World War I, the circulation of newspapers grew in the UK, first promotional offers, proprietors used their papers to further their political aims.
After the II World War: Newspaper circulation decreased reasons are: competing papers, television or other media, more news agencies.
Circulation: In the UK the largest selling paper is the Sunday tabloid news with 5 million copies a week, market is very competitive. In the US, the largest selling paper is the Wall Street Journal with 1.9 copies sold daily.
Organization and Activities: Major newspapers have specialized staffs in all major departments, such as circulation and advertising. To cope with the competition of radio and television, provide more information.
Newspapers still aimed: Size and circulation changed, newspapers still contain something to appeal men, women and children.
Trends and Developments: Technological advance in the last two decades, huge clacking machines and set lines have disappeared, instead electronic typesetting systems have been introduced and the reporters and editors are "the typesetters".
National newspapers with decentralized printing facilities (USA Today)
Newspapers and the new media: Printed information will tend to disappear, electronic information (Television, Internet, Radio) will be available in every home, almost every newspaper has an on-line version (Daily Telegraph pioneered this development in the UK).
The Origins of Newspapers
The history of newspapers is an often-dramatic chapter of the human experience going back some five centuries. In Renaissance Europe handwritten newsletters circulated privately among merchants, passing along information about everything from wars and economic conditions to social customs and "human interest" features. The first printed forerunners of the newspaper appeared in Germany in the late 1400's in the form of news pamphlets or broadsides, often highly sensationalized in content. Some of the most famous of these report the atrocities against Germans in Transylvania perpetrated by a sadistic veovod named Vlad Tsepes Drakul, who became the Count Dracula of later folklore.In the English-speaking world, the earliest predecessors of the newspaper were corantos, small news pamphlets produced only when some event worthy of notice occurred. The first successively published title was The Weekly Newes of 1622. It was followed in the 1640's and 1650's by a plethora of different titles in the similar newsbook format. The first true newspaper in English was the London Gazette of 1666. For a generation it was the only officially sanctioned newspaper, though many periodical titles were in print by the century's end.
Beginnings in America
In America the first newspaper appeared in Boston in 1690, entitled Publick Occurrences. Published without authority, it was immediately suppressed, its publisher arrested, and all copies were destroyed. Indeed, it remained forgotten until 1845 when the only known surviving example was discovered in the British Library. The first successful newspaper was the Boston News-Letter, begun by postmaster John Campbell in 1704. Although it was heavily subsidized by the colonial government the experiment was a near-failure, with very limited circulation. Two more papers made their appearance in the 1720's, in Philadelphia and New York, and the Fourth Estate slowly became established on the new continent. By the eve of the Revolutionary War, some two dozen papers were issued at all the colonies, although Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania would remain the centers of American printing for many years. Articles in colonial papers, brilliantly conceived by revolutionary propagandists, were a major force that influenced public opinion in America from reconciliation with England to full political independence.At war's end in 1783 there were forty-three newspapers in print. The press played a vital role in the affairs of the new nation; many more newspapers were started, representing all shades of political opinion. The no holds barred style of early journalism, much of it libelous by modern standards, reflected the rough and tumble political life of the republic as rival factions jostled for power. The ratification of the Bill of Rights in 1791 at last guaranteed of freedom of the press, and America's newspapers began to take on a central role in national affairs. Growth continued in every state. By 1814 there were 346 newspapers. In the Jacksonian populist 1830's, advances in printing and papermaking technology led to an explosion of newspaper growth, the emergence of the "Penny Press"; it was now possible to produce a newspaper that could be sold for just a cent a copy. Previously, newspapers were the province of the wealthy, literate minority. The price of a year's subscription, usually over a full week's pay for a laborer, had to be paid in full and "invariably in advance." This sudden availability of cheap, interesting reading material was a significant stimulus to the achievement of the nearly universal literacy now taken for granted in America.
The Industrial Revolution
The industrial revolution, as it transformed all aspects of American life and society, dramatically affected newspapers. Both the numbers of papers and their paid circulations continued to rise. The 1850 census catalogued 2,526 titles. In the 1850's powerful, giant presses appeared, able to print ten thousand complete papers per hour. At this time the first "pictorial" weekly newspapers emerged; they featured for the first time extensive illustrations of events in the news, as woodcut engravings made from correspondents' sketches or taken from that new invention, the photograph. During the Civil War the unprecedented demand for timely, accurate news reporting transformed American journalism into a dynamic, hardhitting force in the national life. Reporters, called "specials," became the darlings of the public and the idols of youngsters everywhere. Many accounts of battles turned in by these intrepid adventurers stand today as the definitive histories of their subjects.Newspaper growth continued unabated in the postwar years. An astounding 11,314 different papers were recorded in the 1880 census. By the 1890's the first circulation figures of a million copies per issue were recorded (ironically, these newspapers are now quite rare due to the atrocious quality of cheap paper then in use, and to great losses in World War II era paper drives) At this period appeared the features of the modern newspaper, bold "banner" headlines, extensive use of illustrations, "funny pages," plus expanded coverage of organized sporting events. The rise of "yellow journalism" also marks this era. Hearst could truthfully boast that his newspapers manufactured the public clamor for war on Spain in 1898. This is also the age of media consolidation, as many independent newspapers were swallowed up into powerful "chains"; with regrettable consequences for a once fearless and incorruptible press, many were reduced to vehicles for the distribution of the particular views of their owners, and so remained, without competing papers to challenge their viewpoints. By the 1910's, all the essential features of the recognizably modern newspaper had emerged. In our time, radio and television have gradually supplanted newspapers as the nation's primary information sources, so it may be difficult initially to appreciate the role that newspapers have played in our history.
The earliest known printed books were produced using wooden blocks with
the text
carved on them which was then used as a printing plate. These "plates"
were
produced in much the same manner as those for wood engravings -- except
instead
of an "picture" carved into them, the actual text of a page of a book was
carved into
them.
Hot Metal Composition
By the middle of the 15th century movable type had been invented in Europe.
The
German printer, Johann Gutenberg, first demonstrated his invention in 1448.
By
1462 Gutenberg's invention became accepted and the use of it spread throughout
Europe. Movable type is also called foundry type or hot type. In foundry
type, each
piece of type was cast into a precise size from metal which was an alloy
of lead, tin,
and antimony. Each piece contained a raised image of a single letter, number,
or
other character. The block of metal that carried the raised image was called
the
body. The raised image that was inked for printing was called the face
-- from this
we get the term "typeface".
A distribution box was made up of many compartments. The box had enough
compartments so that each letter, number, and character was assigned a
specific
compartment of their own. In setting type, letters were selected one at
a time and
lined up in what was called a composing stick until it was almost full.
Then, by using
pieces of type with no face on them, spaces between words were adjusted
to bring
the line to the required length. Each line was placed by hand in a larger
box made
especially for housing the type. The individual line were laid out exactly
like the page
of the newspaper was going to be -- except the type was backwards as if
looking at
it in a mirror.
In the beginning, printing from hand-set type, the type was inked and copies
made
directly from the type. When printing was finished, the type was taken
apart, cleaned
and returned to the distribution box for use another time. (Much later
on, technology
was invented to be able to make plates -- called "stereotypes" -- from
which the
actual printing was done.)
Mechanical Composition
The first practical mechanized type casting machine was invented in 1884
by Ottmar
Mergenthaler. His invention was called the "Linotype". It produced solid
lines of text
cast from rows of matrices. Each matrice was a block of metal -- usually
brass --
into which an impression of a letter had been engraved or stamped. The
line-composing operation was done by means of a keyboard similar to a typewriter.
The depression of a single key released a matrice of a character from the
magazine
that stored 90 characters. After a few rows of matrices were assembled,
it was
transferred mechanically to a mold-making device.
Modern type alloy was forced into the mold against the matrices and hardened
almost immediately. The result was a bar of metal of the desired length
of line with
raised letters where the molten metal filled the impressions of the letter
in the
matrices. After using the type for printing, it would be dumped back into
a pot to be
melted down for use again. This machine was much faster than human-hand-set
typesetting and required less of a staff for typesetting.
A later development in line composition was the "Teletypewriter". It was
invented in
1913. This machine could be attached directly to a Linotype or similar
machines to
control composition by means of a perforated tape. The tape was punched
on a
separate keyboard unit. A tape-reader translated the punched code into
electrical
signals that could be sent by wire to tape-punching units in many cities
simultaneously. These duplicate tapes were used to operate line-casting
machines like
the Linotype. The first major news event to make use of the Teletypewriter
was
World War I.
Photo-Mechanical Composition
The next improvement in typesetting methodology was that of photocomposition
machines. These machines had disks of film which had all each letter of
the alphabet,
numbers, and characters on them. An individual disk or drum frequently
contained
two or more type styles, and many machines were designed to carry more
than one
disk or drum. By varying the distance between the character on the drum
and the
film, it was possible to use the same negative image to produce a wide
range of type
sizes.
As the photosetting machine operated, the disk or drum rotated at high
speed in front
of the lens. When the controlling tape called for a specific character,
a flash of light
from a stroboscopic light source projected a character onto the film at
the instant the
character appeared before the lens. The flash of light and the exposure
of the film
occurred so quickly that the moving negative was in effect stopped. After
each
character was projected, either the film carrier or the lens system moved
so that
character after character was projected and exposed side by side until
the line was
completed. The film was then advanced so that the next line of type was
exposed.
The process was repeated many times until the entire article or news story
was
typeset.
Cathode Ray Tube Composition
The early 1960's saw the next improvement in typesetting methods. This
group of
machines made use of a cathode ray tube (CRT) for photocomposition. In
this
process, the image of each character was created on the screen of a cathode
ray
tube similar to a television picture tube. This image was projected through
a lens,
where it formed a character of the appropriate size on light-sensitive
paper or film.
The keyboarding function was separate from the typesetting function and
resulted in a
punched paper tape or a magnetic tape that contained the text matter and
a series of
codes describing the type face and style, size, and all other instructions
required for
typesetting. The tape was used to control the CRT photocomposition unit.
In several CRT photosetting machines, a final image of each character was
stored in
the composing unit. As a character was called for by the tape, a scanning
device read
the stored character and converted the information to electrical signals.
These signals
were transferred to a cathode ray tube where the image of the character
appeared on
the face of the tube. The image was projected through a lens at the desired
size onto
photosensitive paper or film.
In more advanced machines, the shape of each character was analyzed as
bits of
information and recorded magnetically in the computers' memory. This eliminated
the
need for a film image of each character. When a character was called for
by the tape,
the magnetic information was read and translated into electrical signals
that caused
the visual image of the character to appear on the cathode ray tube screen.
With this
system, a number of characters could be stored in magnetic memory and be
called
out at remarkable speed.
An advanced photocomposing method, adopted particularly in the newspaper
industry and still in use today, is also based on the cathode ray tube.
In such a
system, a video display terminal has a keyboard on which copy is typed.
The
composition appears on the tube and is also stored in a magnetic memory.
If a
change is required, the writer types over the matter, the words disappear,
and new
ones take their place. Copy can be rolled back for review or change. When
the copy
is satisfactory, depression of a code button automatically transmits it
directly to a
computer for storage or a composition unit. Advanced video display terminals
can
control the size and spacing of type at the touch of a key button, eliminating
time-consuming physical movement of hot metal type or photocomposed matter.
In all advanced composition systems many functions in typesetting are handled
by
computer. They include justification of lines of type, hyphenation of words,
and
calculations of page depths.
Laser Technology
Considering the sophistication of previous computer-driven photo typesetting
machines, it seemed only logical that the next step involves laser optics
to drive a
printer. Using scientific technology not available even ten years ago,
we can now do
typesetting with the aid of laser beams.
Since the heart of all laser printers is an ordinary office photocopier,
a brief
description of how photocopiers work is in order. In a copier, a very bright
light is
reflected off the white portions of a page onto an electrically charged,
photosensitive
drum. This procedure temporarily eliminates the electric charge in those
areas of the
drum that correspond to the white areas of a page. Fine grains of oppositely
charged
plastic bits, called toner, are then applied to the drum. The toner sticks
to the
portions unaffected by the light. The toner is then transferred to the
paper.
With a laser printer, first text, headlines, and so forth, are entered
into a computer by
means of a computer word processing software program. When ready to have
a
copy printed, a special computer chip within the printer then projects
the text onto
the drum. a laser beam replaces the reflected light used in a ordinary
photocopier.
The laser doesnÕt move, but the beam is directed rapidly across
the width of the
drum by a spinning mirror. Each time the light reflects onto the drum,
areas that
would correspond to the white portions of the paper, become temporarily
uncharged. From this point on the laser printer acts like a photocopier.
Expensive
photosensitive paper is no longer needed.
Using other systems of typesetting, a lot of time is spent positioning
on a layout board
the many single columns of text the system produced. With laser printers,
and page
layout software programs, almost all of the "cutting and pasting" is eliminated.
Rather,
it's done within the computer and laser printer system. Today, the majority
of
newspapers in America are produced using computers and laser printers or
higher
resolution laser film based laser printers.
While there was little change in the methods used to gather news and print
it in
newspapers produced in America between 1692 and 1792, the next century
saw
many significant advances.
For one thing, the Linotype machine had been invented and was in almost
universal
use by 1892. With the use of this machine, 2 men could set type for several
pages
of a newspaper in just a matter of hours instead of several days. Printing
presses
had been perfected that could print thousands of pages per hour rather
than the
lowly figure of 200 per back-breaking hour in 1792.
Yet another area to bring about the advances in newspapers was the invention
of the
telegraph and telephone as well as the laying of the Atlantic Cable. Editors
now no
longer had to rely on ship's captain's or foreign correspondents they didn't
know as
their chief sources of news. News was now fairly current news -- not months
old
events.
In its infancy, to send long news stories by telegram was too cost prohibitive.
Initially, several reporters working for different papers united unofficially
to split the
cost of transmission of the same news item and then copies made and sent
to their
papers. This arrangement didn't last long. 1848 saw the birth of the Associated
Press. Through this cooperative venture, the weekly telegraph bills were
totaled by
the Association president and then divided evenly among the member newspapers.
The Association grew quickly to the point that a single newspapers' bill
would only
amount to a few dollars per news story. In 1892, the Associated Press had
26,798
miles of leased telegraph wires. Many other associations also sprung up
such as the
Western Associated Press and the Southern Associated Press, United Press,
and
International Press.
The use of telegraph to send news stories had grown so much by 1892 that
individual newspapers were becoming overwhelmed with news items.
The first published news story reported by telephone was in the February
13, 1877
edition of the Boston Globe. The news related with the meeting of the Essex
Institute
at Lyceum Hall, where professor Alexander Gharam Bell exhibited his telephone
and
explained its workings to an audience of 500. The receipts for the lecture
amounted
to $85. The news story carried a single line heading, "Sent by Telephone".
Howver,
due to poor quality of transmission, few news items were relayed by telephone.
By
1901 transmission quality improved enough that the first reports of the
McKinley
assassination were relayed to points west by telephone.
By 1892, the art of journalism had now become a true profession. In 1875
Cornell
University offered a certificate of Journalism for the completion of a
prescribed liberal
arts curriculum plus some work in the university printing department, but
it had no
specific journalism courses. The first journalism courses offered in a
university was
two at the University of Missouri were "History of Journalism" in 1878
and "Materials
of Journalism" in 1884.
1885 saw the formation of several press clubs and associations as well
as trade
unions for journalists. That same year saw the first issue of a trade publication
specifically for newspaper workers -- "The Journalist".
Women flocked into newspaper work in the 1880's. It is estimated that in
1886 there
were 500 women who worked regularly on the editorial side of American newspapers.
It is also this era that the term "Yellow Journalism" was coined. The New
York World
issued a supplement in their Sunday, November 19, 1893 edition. One of
the
features in the supplement was "The Yellow Kid", a cartoon drawn for the
World by
R.F. Outcault, depicting a snaggle-tooth youngster in a single shirt-like
garment. The
cartoon became very popular. As for the term "Yellow Journalism" having
its origin
with the cartoon, it was not the content of the cartoon but rather the
content of the
newspaper that it owes its allegiance. For example, some sample headlines
from
World's of that era include: "A Mother's Awful Crime," "A Bride But Not
a Wife",
"Baptized in Blood", "Little Lotta's Lovers", and so forth. Competitor
newspapers
began referring to Hearst's World as the "Yellow Newspaper". It wasn't
long before
the public began to associate sensationalized "news" with being "Yellow
Journalism".
While Hearst and Pulitzer are often criticized for their sensationalizing
of news, there
is another side of their journalism that is seldom mentioned. -- the accomplishments
for the public good. Both editors went beyond simply editorializing whom
people
should vote for in the next election. Rather, both extensively used their
newspapers
as platforms for the public good. One such example is the New York World
in 1885.
The newspaper successfully carried out a campaign to raise funds to erect
a pedestal
in New York harbor for Bartholds' Statue of Liberty. It only took the World
5 months
to raise the $300,000 needed to erect the pedestal. The money didn't come
from
big business or corporate sponsors -- there were over 120,000 contributors
with
many contributing only 5 or ten cents. Other campaigns exposed corruption
in the
city government and legislation tightening child labor laws.
