Originally, philosophy and science were unified in purpose, which was, in the words of Plato, "the vision of truth." They were also unified in their methodological exploration of reality, which consisted of observation and rational interpretation of what was observed. This happy marriage persisted for many centuries until ideological and technological revolutions introduced new methodologies and the need for greater specialization. Unable to resolve the developing differences in outlook and method, philosophy and science separated from one another, tearing apart what had been their common subject of inquiry. Philosophers and theologians carried with them the mind and soul; scientists kept matter and the body, and psychologists as newcomers lived for some time a schizokinetic existence between spirit and substance, without enough scientific recognition or philosophical support.

Mathematics, physics, and chemistry became increasingly important fields of study, and the application of experimental methods to biology was so fruitful that the interest of scholars was diverted from philosophy to science. Why should time be spent in semantic fencing and speculations when important questions could be asked directly of living organisms, rocks, and celestial bodies? Telescopes and microscopes explored opposite aspects of the natural world, and organic compounds were synthesized

13

14 PHYSICAL CONTROL OF THE MIND

The exploding sciences engaged most of the available intellectual and economic resources, directing them toward industry, biology, electronics, atomic energy, outer space exploration, and similar fields of endeavor. In contrast, only a minor effort was devoted to inquiry into the nature of mental faculties. This unbalanced situation was determined in part by methodological reasons. The mind was considered a metaphysical entity beyond experimental reach, and in spite of the obvious importance of understanding the psychological essence of man, it appeared more practical to invent combustion engines or to investigate the structure of cells than to speculate about emotions and thoughts. While it is true that the disciplines of psychology and psychiatry have greatly expanded in our century, a survey of the literature shows that a decade or two ago the brain was still treated as a "black box" which could be reached only through the senses. Psychological investigations analyzed correlations between sensory inputs and behavioral outputs but could not explore the intermediary processes which were hidden in the unknowns of brain physiology. Some authors doubted that the study of neurons could throw any light on understanding properties of the mind. Surprisingly enough, most investigators of the brain also contributed to this unbalanced situation because they studied heavily anesthetized subjects, and dealing with sleepy neurons, they failed to take into account the mental complexity of the waking brain.

The contrast between the fast pace of technological evolution and our limited advances in the understanding and control of human behavior is creating a growing danger. We are facing a situation in which vast amounts of accumulated destructive power are at the disposal of brains which have not yet learned to be wise enough to solve economic conflicts and ideological 0 antagonisms intelligently. The "balance of terror" existing in the present world reflects the discrepancy between the awesome technology and the underdeveloped wisdom of man.

We may recall that many millenniums ago, during the Jurassic period, the gigantic brontosauri, weighing thirty tons

IMBALANCE BETWEEN MATERIAL AND MENTAL EVOLUTION 15

and extending over seventy feet in length, reached their peak of power. With their long necks and tails they probably moved gracefully in the water, but on land they were clumsy and consumed large amounts of energy just in moving their weight around. Judged by fossil bones discovered in Colorado and Wyoming, their brute force was overwhelming, but this extraordinary physical power was directed by tiny brains weighing less than 0.5 kilograms. The organization of incoming signals and outgoing messages to keep these huge frames in working order must have occupied most of their brains, leaving little opportunity for more intelligent and adaptive behavior. The brontosauri became extinct because of their extremely limited mental powers; faced with an increasingly unfavorable climate and diminishing food supply, these animals were incapable of adaptation and could not survive in the changing environment. The fate of these giants may have symbolic value for twentieth century civilization, which is also attempting to direct tremendous potential with disproportionately small brains. While our mental faculties are incomparably superior to those of the early land animals, we still lack adequate self-knowledge and control, and natural history teaches that when underdeveloped brains are in charge of great power, the result is extinction. Methods for the re-education and control of social antagonisms and undesirable emotional manifestations in man are urgently needed. While these processes are obviously related to environmental circumstances, they also depend on the activity of intracerebral mechanisms, which should be better known. When primitive man faced natural catastrophes like floods or pestilence, he was helpless and reacted with resignation, despair, or an appeal to supernatural powers. In contrast, modern man, being more perceptive, may decide to study his circumstances and apply his power and intelligence to the immediate problem; by constructing dikes or vaccinating the population, he may prevent or modify the forces of natural causality. It is reasonable to assume that just as more knowledge of natural mechanisms allows us to use and control natural forces, a clearer understanding of the

l6 PHYSICAL CONTROL OF THE MIND

central nervous system should enable us to educate and direct mental activity more intelligently. In a recent symposium concerning the "Education of Biologists for the Modern World," the distinguished investigator Beach (11) lucidly expressed the thoughts of many scientists by saying: ". . . man's greatest problem today is not to understand and exploit his physical environment, but to understand and govern his conduct. ... If he is to survive he must proceed to explore himself and to control his own activities. . . . Science can and must provide the understanding necessary for prediction. ... If science provides knowledge society will display wisdom."