|
Identity Crisis :
The Chinese cultural idea of heroism stresses many important ideals that differ from the thematic emphasis of Greek classics. These ideas range from the need to suppress one's pride and emotions to the need for filial piety. However, there are too many ideals in Chinese literature to adequately discuss in one essay. One important concept, though, in defining a "hero" that merits further discussion is the need to control one's emotions and suppress one's personal interests in order to achieve any meaningful accomplishment. Chinese heroes often suffer many trials and tribulations at the expense of individual pride and honour in order to realize eventual success. This concept is reflected again and again in historical Chinese war literature, which differs from the Odyssey and the Iliad, two classical examples of European literature, where the emphasis is personal identity and individuality. The focus in this essay will therefore strictly be on the contrasts between the Chinese suppression of "self" and the Greek advocation of personal identity and individuality. The Odyssey and the Iliad tend to stress the two aforementioned qualities. A hero has to establish a unique identity that separates him from the masses. As a "hero" in the Odyssey, Odysseus must differentiate himself from the rest of his crew. He is allowed to compromise the opinions and interests of his crew to establish his heroic gestures. In the encounter with the Cyclops, Odysseus' crew wants to avoid direct confrontation against the creature. Yet Odysseus' refusal takes precedence. As the "hero" Odysseus must meet his challenge head on, because indirect engagements take away from a hero's identity. Odysseus' need for a distinct identity is further illustrated in his confrontation with the Sirens. As Circe informs him, it is unnecessary for him to risk listening to the song of the Sirens. However, once again, Odysseus has to differentiate himself from his crew. He lies to them in telling them "yet she [Circe] urged that I/alone should listen to their song"(Homer, Odyssey, p.363). The Odyssey further distinguishes Odysseus from his crew by its negative portrayal of them. His men are portrayed as "mutinous fools", "forgetful of their homeland" and "swines". In contrasting with his crew then, Odysseus is further glorified as a hero. In Chinese literature, the leaders are considered to be only as good as their subjects and there is an emphasis on the leader's ability to command and make use of those subjects. The commander of his troops must always think in the best interest of the crew, because without his men, the leader is nothing. When Confucius' stable burned down, his first reaction was not for the stable but whether anyone is hurt or not. Tzang Jun is ridiculed for keeping a man who can disguise himself as a dog and keeping a man who can imitate the sounds of a rooster in his service. But when the Tzang Jun was trapped in the Chin citadel, these two men were able to help him escape using their unusual abilities. Liu Bei, ruler of one of the three kingdoms of China, is not an extraordinary fighter or tactician in war. However, he goes to extraordinary lengths to treat his men as his equals. He shares his bed and board with his sworn brothers, recruits new men personally, and leads all his battles himself. As a result he earns the loyalty, devotion, and admiration of all his followers. It is from stories such as these that children realize the importance of the people who work for or with them. Confucius stresses that a country is only as strong as its people, just as a leader is only as strong as his men. Therefore the hero should always be looking to the best interest of his men. The Odyssey, however, completely contravenes this notion. Odysseus is portrayed as an individual to enhance his heroics. But his individuality, and his inability to control his men, would be seen as a complete and utter failure in Chinese literary traditions. This theme of individuality in the Iliad is also much the same as in the odyssey, where the establishment of an identity and the refusal to budge from that identity signify a conviction of principles and hence heroism. In fact, the Iliad is based entirely on the conflicts between the identities of two people - Achilles and Agamemnon. Achilles falls prey to the need for an identity in accordance with his rank. Losing the girl Briseis is an insult in a series of insults to his contributions in the war. His feeling of being wronged is demonstrated in his words
Pride, however, is another element that is discouraged in Chinese storytelling. To achieve success, heroes often have to endure events that are degrading or demeaning to their identity. Zhang Lan goes under a bridge to pick up the shoe of an old man who had kicked it down on purpose, and he kneels down to put the shoe back on the man. The old man told Zhang Lan to return in five days but for two consecutive weeks the old man arrives earlier than him and scolds him for being tardy. Zhang Lan finally leaves before dawn and arrives before the old man. He is rewarded with a book, The Stratagems of Tai Gong, and after studying it, he becomes the chief military strategist of the Han army and defeats the Chiu and the Chin army to establish the Han empire. In another story, She Ma Chen promises to accomplish his father's dying wish to record the histories of China. However, he offends the emperor by mistake and is sentenced to execution. As an alternative to death he elects to lose his manhood and proceeds to write one of the most important chronicles of Chinese history. In both these stories the hero is insulted in one form or another, sometimes in ways much more severe than those Achilles or Agamemnon had to endure. But it is in enduring these abuses and keeping their emotions in check that these heroes are able eventually to attain their goals. The Chinese culture believes that life is never easy. Therefore, the true hero is one who can not only survive personal sufferings, but also personal insults and profit from them. Achilles' pride cost the Greek army many lives. But as a hero celebrated in Greek literature for his abilities in combat, his pride and stubbornness are overshadowed by his accomplishments during battle. This type of heroism, however, cannot be condoned in Chinese literature. As another example, Liu Bei, the aforementioned leader of one of the three kingdoms, personally visited the hut of the hermit Zhuge Liang in the mountains three times to beg Zhuge Liang to become his military strategist. Agamemnon, however, was a king and therefore it is unbefitting for him to visit Achilles himself and beg for Achilles return to war. Instead, as part of the condition for his gifts, he still wants Achilles to "bow down to me! I am the greatest king/I am the elder-born, I claim-the greater man."(Homer, Iliad, p.129) Chinese literature teaches people to swallow their pride and control their emotions in the face of adversity. Those who lose control of their emotions to their circumstances will never achieve anything substantial, as Agamemnon's pride eventually costs him a significant part of the war. Pride and the need for symbolic representations of his rank also afflict Agamemnon. As the king and ruler of the Achaeans, Agamemnon had to demonstrate his leadership status. He was convinced losing his prize, Chryseis, is an insult to his dignity and therefore he must be compensated. Specifically, the loss of Chryseis is not as important as losing face in front of his army, as he proclaims "...fetch me another prize, and straight off too,/else I alone of the Argives go without my honor./That would be a disgrace. You are all witness,/look my prize is snatched away!"(Homer, Iliad, p.101) Chryseis is treated as a prize that symbolizes his conquest, and the loss of this prize becomes a degradation of his identity. In order to appease his wounded pride and in order not to lose the respect of his peers, Agamemnon felt it necessary to claim another female, Briseis, Achilles' prize, as his compensation, regardless of Achilles' objections and the consequence of his actions. This fixation with compensation is discouraged in classical Chinese literature. Perhaps it is a result of the influences of Buddhism, Confucism and Taoism, but, if anything, Chinese culture opposes preoccupation with material possessions. Lao Tzu, the founder of Taoism, denigrates wealth. In fact, the doctrines of Taoism warns of the conflict that arose between Agamemnon and Achilles. Taoism states that material wealth breeds conflict. Only by not valuing wealth can one avoid this conflict. This principle is applied in many Chinese stories. Hua Moo Lan, a female, joins the army in the place of her father, who is conscripted. She conceals her identity up to the end of the war, making the rank of general in the process. However, instead of accepting the position of governor as a reward from the emperor, she returns home to resume her duties of a pious daughter. It is not until she arrives home and removes her helmet that her men realizes her female identity. In Shea Gee, a chronical of Chinese history, there is a famous story where a governor sends one of his men to collect the interest from debts in a town where the harvest was extremely bad that year. But instead of collecting the taxes, the man extended the loans of those that could eventually pay back and burned the contracts of those that were too poor ever to pay the governor back. The governor is furious when this subject returns, but he is told the reason the man burned the leases is because those that could pay him back will eventually pay him back, but those that could not will never be able to pay him back and may eventually run away. But by giving up the lease on his own volition, not only will he gain the loyalty of the town, but also increase his fame and his heroism. This is the type of shrewdness and departure from obsession with material wealth that typifies Chinese literature. Wealth is used to increase and enhance loyalty, and it is only valuable when it can further the greater good. A Chinese leader in Agamemnon's situation will be encouraged to give up Chryseis in the interests of his army and reward the seer for the advice. Zho San cut off the head of one of his favourite women because she laughed at the deformity of one of his esteemed guests. But in giving up one his personal pleasures, he gained the respect of his men as someone who values the talents of people more than material wealth. Chinese stories stress that there is time for enjoyment and a time to surrender those fancies. It is stories such as these that influence the Chinese perspective regarding material possessions. Unless one can use wealth to advance the greater interests of everyone, wealth amounts to little more than aesthetic materialism. Classical literature and the morals identified with the literature through the actions of the hero are powerful tools in shaping the beliefs of a culture. The stories people hear and read in their childhood invariably shape their morals and ideologies as they grow older. These stories begin as tales used to teach and inspire people in their attitudes and aspirations, but as the tales become popularized, they reach a point where the values become embedded and ingrained permanently into the society. The definition of what constitutes a "hero" differs from culture to culture. One emphasis of heroism in Western classics involved personal identity and individuality. People possessing exceptional skill who are set apart from the crowd are looked upon as "heroes" and are glorified for their exploits. This contrasts with the Chinese ideals of a hero, where the commander is only as good as his ability to use his troops; where pride and showmanship will only lead to disaster; and where material wealth should be used to further the greater cause and therefore one should not become too attached to it in situations that necessitate its use. Although the focus discussed so far emphasizes classical historical tales of war, the ideas presented can be extend to other moral messages and other types of stories. Chinese stories embrace different values from Greek tales, including values such as controlling one's emotions and suppressing one's pride, but also including concepts such as filial piety and others that may not have been discussed in this paper. It is through these stories that Chinese people grow up believing in certain morals and ideals, such as being less confrontational and less overt in expressing their displeasures. People of the western culture are quick to stereotype the Chinese as being quiet and submissive, discreet and modest, without really understanding the thought process of a Chinese individual. People need to have a better understanding of an individual to have a better understanding of a culture. But to achieve this, one needs to have a better knowledge of the culture's literature. This is not to say that the Chinese values are necessarily better than European ones, but just that culture and values are intrinsically linked to literature. I remember once discussing the Oriental accent of on modesty with a Caucasian of European descent and his response was that a suppression of identity and individualism may not necessarily be beneficial. The Chinese practice becomes cryptic to people who are not experienced with the Chinese method and its emphasis on conformity may suppress creativity and recognition. Caucasian individualism may come across as arrogant and may compromise the welfare of others in certain situations, but it also makes its society more independent and innovative. There is a phrase that says "Americans invent things; Japanese improves them." There are benefits and costs associated with all morals, values, and standards. And to evaluate them, one needs first to understand them. But these ideas are in no small part instilled by the stories one hears throughout one's life. Therefore by examining the classical stories of a culture, we can begin to understand the identity of the culture and the identity of the individual.
|
