Although
man is born in a state of fitrah, he also has the potential for
wrong. In order to actualise his fitrah, man needs to gain control
over this potential for wrong within himself. Wrongdoing, kufr (rejection
of tawhîd) and breaking the Divine law, are all part of the
Divine scheme of Creation; their functions are important and decisive for man.
Allâh has endowed man with the inborn capacity to distinguish right from wrong.
Through intellect, freewill and revelation he can be guided to choose what is
right and lawful and thus reawaken this recognition in him. Although man is not
born evil he is vulnerable to evil stimuli or external sources of misguidance.
This property of the human constitution, to be vulnerable to wrong, is intrinsic
to man and is referred to as the psyche or the self (nafs) of man.
The
emotional and biological impulses of man are not inherently evil, but are
readily susceptible to evil stimuli. They need to be controlled and directed in
accordance with Divinely prescribed laws so that the nafs can be
transformed into the highest level of spiritual achievement – an-nafs al-mutma’innah.
The
individual who has attained a highest spiritual consciousness has passed through
three broad levels of psycho-spiritual growth. The Qur’ân uses the term nafs
to denote the psychic dimension (or the self) of man. It is a dynamic entity
which, if properly trained, can develop to the highest stage of spiritual
awareness and, ultimately, harmony with the rűh.
The
lowest level of psycho-spiritual state of the nafs is an-nafs al-ammârah
– the commanding self. This state is the negative psychic force in man, the
seat of the egotistic and selfish drives. It may be contrasted with the qalb,
the rűh and the ‘aql, which represent the spiritual drive in
man, always seeking the presence of Allâh. Nafs has a negative character
in the Qur’ân through being
called ‘an-nafs al-ammârah bi’s-su’’[1]
(the self
commanding evil)…This aspect of the nafs is referred to as the lower
self, which at-Tustari grouped under four main headings:[2]
(i)
The
selfish desire of the nafs: it desires its own pleasures through its
inborn lust (shahwah) and passion (hawâ’).
(ii)
The
autonomous claim of the nafs: it claims its own self-centred power (hawl)
and strength (quwwah) and follows its own planning (tadbîr)
without regard for Allâh’s guidance.
(iii)
The
antagonistic temper of the nafs: it tempts man to act in accordance with
his natural inclination for both restless movement (harakah) and listless
passivity (sukűn), in opposition to Allâh’s command (amr) and
prohibition (nahî).
(iv)
The
nafs as man’s enemy and shaytân’s companion: it is the worst
enemy (‘adűw) of man and associates itself with shaytân by
taking heed of the whispering (wawasah).
An-nafs
al-lawwâmah
(the reproachful self: see Qur’ân 75:2) is the first major step in
psycho-spiritual growth. It is the inner guide that directs man to the truth,
and stands mid-way between the negative tendency of an-nafs al-ammârah
and the positive tendencies of rűh and ‘aql. At this stage, the
slightest departure from the straight path arouses in the believer the pains of
conscience.
Unlike
the commanding self, the reproachful self does not totally submit to carnal
desire and whims. The motive force of the reproachful self is fulfilled when it
reaches the final stage of psycho-spiritual growth, an-nafs al-mutma’innah
(the contented self). At this latter stage the individual is totally liberated
from the carnal self and attains the highest level of spiritual balance…
The
psychological or psychical implications of fitrah are associated
with the nafs. Since the emotions and desires form an integral part of
the nafs of man, the psychological implications are directly related to
its emotional dimensions. Both the emotional and the psychological dimensions of
man have positive as well as negative tendencies. If man’s emotions are
controlled and directed to higher spiritual ends, then his psychical nature is
disciplined. Although the biological constitution of man is completely different
from the biological constitution, the former nevertheless serves as an
instrument for the drives of the psyche…The lower self of the nafs must
be transformed into a positive, spiritually higher state so that the individual
may be liberated from bondage to the lower nafs, for it tends towards
gratification of the biological and emotional needs of the individual and away
from the service of Allâh.
Two
primary qualities of the nafs are passion and anger. All other negative
drives are derived from these two. Passion instinctively tends to weigh the
individual down with an inertia of complacency and indulgence, while, at the
same time, it is expressive and pulsates with its own energy. Dispersing waves
of its activity beyond itself. Anger is an emotion bent on glorification,
arrogance and domination. Its energy serves to stifle its own dynamic and
confines free emotional expression to forceful self-justification. These
attributes suggest an ambivalence in human emotional states: they have positive
as well as negative tendencies. They are, nonetheless, integral to the soul.
Passion may appeal to the individual’s sense of charisma, make him of a
pleasant disposition and produce in him a sense of serenity. Anger may serve the
function of self-preservation, seek to resist falsehood and to establish harmony
where there is discord.
However, one must maintain balance in the degree to which these drives influence the thought and behaviour of the individual. A lack of such drives may prove harmful for the soul and body, while an excess of them may harm the individual’s intellect and faith. Indeed, the refinement and discipline of the nafs consist in restoring the qualities of anger and passion to a state of balance, in order to avoid descent into bestial animal states and to prevent the emergence of other blameworthy qualities. Regarding the way in which one can maintain this state of balance, Najm ad-Dîn ar-Râzî (654 A.H./1256 C.E.) said:
‘In obedience to the Law (sharî‘ah), man
should earnestly fear Allâh and not to strive to seek dispensation, for the Law
and the fear of Allâh are a balance which maintain the attributes in a state of
equilibrium, preventing some from prevailing over others. Disequilibrium would
be in a state of animals and beasts of prey, for in animals the attribute of
passion prevails over that of anger, and in beasts of prey the attribute of
anger prevails over that of passion. Of necessity, animals are given to greed
and lust, and beasts of prey to conquest, wrath, and dominance, to killing and
hunting.’[3]
According
to Najm ad-Dîn ar-Râzî, Allâh does not intend the ‘alchemy of the Law’
to eliminate blameworthy qualities, for that would result in deficient spiritual
and physical well-being; herein lies the folly of those philosophers who sought
to completely eliminate anger, passion and lust. Instead, the property of Law
and the alchemy of the dîn are to restore each of these qualities to a
state of balance in the soul so that they may be exercised in accordance with
the sharî‘ah. Thereby they cause praiseworthy qualities to emerge from
within the self. The paradoxical nature of these drives is that their energy,
after being transformed so as to manifest its potential for good, can elevate
the individual to the highest level, an-nafs al-mutma’innah.
With
regard to the transformation of the lower elements of the self, we again
consider the drive of anger and examine the distinction between the ‘holy
anger’ of the saintly man and the gross anger of the profane man. The
fearfully obedient believer is one who has actualized his fitrah,
by transforming it from its original state within his being to an embodiment in
reality. The influence of the actualised fitrah pervades and
suffuses all experience, all thought and all behaviour. Although, anger, for
example, derives its energy from itself, the fearfully obedient and
conscientious individual expresses it with the direction and immutable Divine
quality of guidance of fitrah. Whether consciously, subconsciously
our unconsciously, the individual, by his anger, seeks only to fulfil his
actualized fitrah and to resist evil and establish good. Note here
the connection between the emotional experience and fitrah; by
means of this connection the transformation of the believer’s anger takes
place.
The
profane man, on the other hand, experiences profane anger. His fitrah
is only in his being; it is not actualized in his behaviour. The relationship
between his fitrah and his emotional experience is, at best,
fleeting or, at worst, non-existent; there is no real or substantial connection.
The fitrah of the profane man remains a dormant potential,
untapped by his conscious will, while with his anger he may seek gratification
for his own sake, for selfish, cowardly or unjust motives. Consciously,
subconsciously or unconsciously, he has not allowed his fitrah to
orientate, direct and express his anger in an Islâmic manner.
Socially,
anger plays a vital role in the manifestation of the believer’s spiritual
consciousness. The following hadîth testifies to this:
‘Whoever of you sees an evil action, let him change it with his hand; and if he is not able to do so, then with his tongue; and if he is not able to do so, then with his heart, and that is the weakest of faith.’[4]
The above hadîth
refers to the conduct of the believer who experiences holy anger with respect to
unjust social conditions and wrongdoing, for example. Holy passion, like holy
anger, is sanctified by the individual’s fitrah. The natural
energy of passion, under the guidance of fitrah, teaches the
fearfully obedient believer the difference between attachment to the Creator and
His Divine guidance, and attachment to all circumstances, events and things. He
acknowledges and appreciates all that is relative, mortal and transient, as the
creation of the Creator; nothing can detract from or diminish his admiration and
appreciation of such things in the physical world, for this is, after all,
relative to the absolute. Real passion, however, in all its intensity of energy,
is invested in the absolute itself. On the other hand, gross worldly passion is,
in the extreme, ignorant of the fleeting nature and relativity of physical
reality. At times profane man doubts even his own physical morality. In his
frame of reference, the Creator is relative or does not feature at all; God is a
consequence of or a means to his intense and unconquerable attachment to this
world. The energy of his passion drowns his potential for reawakening, in
inertia and it vibrates with activity bent on greed, lust and the like. Profane
passion is not transformed and sanctified by fitrah, but holy
passion is, and the latter seeks expression through spiritual values.
Al-Ghazâlî’s picture of dynamic interaction shows how the elements of anger and appetite, when controlled and transmuted with the aid of the ‘aql, are able to transform the lower nafs into the higher levels of psycho-spiritual development, and in so doing actualize the state of fitrah. Although the soul and the body are separate entities, they affect each other. Al-Ghazâlî maintains that every act produces an effect on the soul, if it is done deliberately and repeatedly. As physical action influences the soul, so the soul influences the body. This is known as the ‘traditional interaction theory’. An act creates an effect on the soul; this effect causes the body to repeat the same act which again produces an effect on the soul. The resultant effect is added to the previous effect produced.[5]
Before I can discuss al-Ghazâlî’s interaction picture, which deals with the dynamics of the self, I need to introduce the faculties of the self in relation to the human constitution. Most Muslim philosophers accepted Plato’s view that the soul consists of three qualities. Al-Ghazâlî introduced a fourth quality, the quality of justice, the function of which is to maintain a balance between the other qualities of anger, appetite and reason. The quality of anger is referred to in the Qur’ân and hadîth as a passion (hawâ’). Appetite and passion are also referred to as nafs (the carnal self). Al-Ghazâlî regarded these as the source of wrongdoing. Like Najm ad-Din al-Râzî, al-Ghazâlî also maintained that passion has been created for the benefit of man, but that it serves a good purpose only when it is expressed within the prescribed limits which are determined by ‘aql and sharî‘ah. However, since nafs tends to exceed the limits because of its vulnerability to impulsive behaviour, it needs to be controlled and directed by the quality of justice, which is referred to by al-Ghazâlî as the ‘motive of religion’ (ba‘ith ad-dîn).
These two motives of the nafs, the susceptibility to irrational impulses and the quality of justice, compete with each other in the self of every sane human being.[6] The introduction of the quality of justice is important to al-Ghazâlî as it has a bearing on his theory of root virtues, struggle with the self and moral responsibilities. The faculty of justice is not yet present in man before the age of discretion and he is not able to control his passion (hawâ’) and cannot choose to refrain from wrongdoing.
The four elements of bahimiyyah, sab‘iyyah, rabbaniyyah and shaytâniyyah respectively determine the natures and the extent of the forces of appetite, anger, intellect and shaytân. Individuals possess these powers in different proportions. A full appreciation of ar-Râzî’s and al-Ghazâlî’s views requires an analysis of the dynamic interaction of the forces of appetite and anger and of the satanic and angelic elements in man, (cf. diagram P which may prove useful in understanding the dynamic nature of man’s nafs and its discipline and transmutation into higher spiritual levels).
‘Aql and shaytâniyyah are opposing forces of the soul that work through shahwah (appetite) and ghadab (anger) towards a constructive and destructive purposes. The animal forces of anger and appetite are instigated by shaytâniyyah to revolt against ‘aql and conquer it. ‘Aql, on the other hand, because of its inherent angelic element, seeks to control these animal forces and diver them through proper channels in order to make them useful to the soul. If ‘aql succeeds in subjugating them, the satanic influence on man is weakened and rendered ineffective, and a state of harmony conducive to the realization of God prevails. The tendency towards wrongdoing is subdued and the animal forces are harmonized, which permits the soul to pursue its goal without interruption. It is this state of peace and harmony in the soul which is referred to in the Qur’ân as an-nafs al-mutma’innah.
However, if the animal forces are instigated by shaytaniyyah, they rebel against ‘aql and conquer it, strengthening the wrong influence on man until it has complete control over the ‘aql, thus weakening the angelic element in man. All the other faculties then become subservient to shaytân; and reason becomes the slave of anger, passion and lust. The wrongdoing tendency becomes stronger, with a correspondingly increased desire for self-gratification through the physical expression of wrongdoing at the expense of the good of the soul. Shaytân devises means for the satisfaction of these wrong needs. When this tendency reaches its maximum potential it becomes the active principle in an-nafs al-ammârah, the lowest level of spiritual development.
Nevertheless, the angelic
element opposes these animal forces and is seldom totally subdued. It is when
the angelic element of the soul is engaged in this kind of struggle that it is
referred to by the Qur’ân as the admonishing or reproachful soul – an-nafs
al-lawwâmah.[7]
These conditions of the soul
represent the spiritual consequences of the interaction of these elements. A
balance of power is maintained when anger and appetite are controlled by ‘aql.
The equilibrium of the three phases of the soul’s development produces ethical
consequences that are conducive to the realisation of the ideal. If shahwah,
for example, is controlled and expressed in moderation, qualities such as
chastity, contentment and modesty emerge. If ghadab is controlled,
qualities such as courage, generosity, fortitude, endurance and forgiveness
emerge. If both shahwah and ghadab are subordinated to the angelic
element, qualities such as knowledge, wisdom, faith and certainty develop.
However, if shahwah dominates, the progress of the soul towards its goal
is affected; bestial characteristics such as greed, gluttony, wickedness,
hypocrisy and jealousy then emerge. If ghadab dominates, characteristics
of ferocious animals such as enmity, hatred, contempt, pride and love of self-aggrandisement
are acquired. If the angelic element transcends its limits then qualities such
as claiming lordship (rubűbiyyah), despotism and making claims to
special privilege are displayed.[8]
Man stands midway between animals and angels and his unique characteristic is intelligence – ‘aql.
He can rise to the levels of the angels with the help of the intellect or stoop to the level of the animals by permitting his anger and lust to dominate him. The foregoing psychological analysis makes it clear that Allâh has created all bodily organs and faculties of the self to help him realise his fitrah. However, al-Ghazâlî emphasized that the realization of fitrah can be achieved only when the intellect has been fully applied. Thorough knowledge is, to al-Ghazâlî, a prerequisite for the application of the intellect…
DIAGRAM P
Al-Ghazali’s Theory of
Dynamic Interaction
‘Aql
Degrees of Dominance over
and Subservience to the Animal Forces of Anger and Appetite
(angelic element/intellect)
Shahwah
↔
SELF
↔
Ghadab
(appetite)
(nafs, rűh)
(anger)
↨
(satanic element)
LEVELS OF
PSYCHO-SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT
ANGELIC ELEMENT
(‘AQL)SATANIC ELEMENT
(SHAYTÂNIYYAH)
an-nafs al-ammârah
subservience
dominant
an-nafs
al-lawwâmah
partial subservience
partially subservient
an-nafs al-mutma’innah
dominance
subservient
[1] Qur’ân
12:53
[2]
Gerhard Böwering, The Mystical Vision in Classical Islam, (Berlin:
Walter de Gruyter, 1980), p. 243.
(i) The Selfish Desire of the Nafs: it desires its own pleasures through its innate tendencies of lust (shahwah) and passion (hawâ’).
(ii)
The Autonomous Claim of the Nafs: it makes claim over its
self-centred power (hawl) and strength (quwwah), and to follow its
own planning (tadbîr) without regard for Allâh’s guidance.
(iii)
The Antagonistic Temper of the Nafs: it tempts man to act in
accordance with his natural inclination for restless movement (harakah)
and listless passivity (sukűn) in opposition to Allâh’s command (amr)
and prohibition (nahî).
[3] Najm
al Dîn ar-Râzî, The Path to God’s Bondsman from Origin to Return,
(New York: Caravan Books, 1982), trans. Hamid Algar, p. 195.
[5] A.
Quasem, The Nature of al-Ghazali’s Ethics, (Edinburgh, 1973), pp.
50-51.
[6]
Ibid., pp. 50-51.
[7] M.
Umaruddin, The Ethical Philosophy of Al-Ghazali, op. cit., pp. 63-64.
[8] Ibid., pp. 63-64.
