The central figure in the myths that Firdowsi collected and versified is Yazdan, the Lord of the life force and of discernment:1

In the name of the Lord of both wisdom and mind,
To nothing sublimer can thought be applied [.] 2

The first thing needful for thee is to know
The sum of primal elements which He,
Who maketh all things, made from naught to show
The greatness of His own supremacy.3

At the center of Yazdan's creation is truth, symbolized as a ball of fire from which everything else emanates. The existence of the earth, Firdowsi says, is a consequence of the cooling of that ball of fire, the existence of water is a result of the further cooling of the earth, and the growth of plants is a consequence of the intermingling of elements on earth. Animals and humanity complete Yazdan's creation.

Firdowsi distinguishes humanity as the crown of Yazdan's creation. It is to human beings, Firdowsi declares, that Yazdan has passed His abilities and discernment. To help humanity in its pursuit of truth, Yazdan has created the sun to light the world and, more importantly, to serve as a visible symbol of an unswerving quest for truth. Yazdan created the moon so that its waxing and waning would indicate that both kingdoms--light as well as darkness--might prevail. Humanity's aim, however, must be to identify itself with the full moon.

To pass His wisdom to mankind, Firdowsi insists, Yazdan created a "chain" of command, a hierarchy beginning at His own level, leading into the domain of the Yazatas (lesser deities responsible for the spiritual and the physical well-being of creation) and the Farahvashis (souls of the believers). Through this chain, Yazdan assured His personal supervision of the spiritual affairs of the individual believer, as well as control of all activities within His kingdom. This control was vital for Yazdan's scheme because, in the final analysis, the prevalence of good over evil depends entirely on the degree of good and evil exercised by human beings on earth.

The members of the assembly of Yazadan contributed to the enhancement of Yazdan's creation by meeting the needs of the physical world. This assembly assessed the abilities of all the individuals on earth, and recognized one to be supreme. This recognition, translated into farr (i.e., recognition of a mortal endowed with the principles of just rulership) allowed Yazdan to confer upon that unique individual the divine right to rule.

The farr, upon its creation, was tested in the intermediary world, a universe inhabited by cosmic beings, where each individual is the equivalent of a later physical world. In that universe, the farr fell on Kayumars4 who, soon after, gathered all other beings around him on top of a mountain and apprised them of his kingly status:

This order, Grace, and lustre came to earth
When Sol was dominant in Aries
And shone so brightly that the world grew young.
Its lord was Gaiumart,5 who dwelt at first
Upon a mountain; thence his throne and fortune
Rose. He and all his troop wore leopard-skins,
And under him the arts of life began,
For food and dress were in their infancy.
He reigned o'er all the earth for thirty years,
In goodness like a sun upon the throne,
And as a full moon o'er a lofty cypress

So shone he from the seat of king of kings.
The cattle and the divers [sic] beasts of prey
Grew tame before him; men stood not erect
Before his throne but bent, as though in prayer,
Awed by the splendour of his high estate,
And thence received their Faith.6

The assembly led by Yazdan's first deputy on earth, Kayumars, worried Ahriman. He decided to frustrate Kayumars' efforts and destroy his will to serve, but even the murder of Kayumars' son, Siyamak, did not effectively seal Yazdan's plans for the propagation of truth. Kayumars had already taught the secret of just rulership to Hushang, another son of Siyamak.7

Defeated, Ahriman retreated, while Yazdan continued to perfect His cosmic kingdom by allowing the new king to discover fire. The discovery of fire led to the discovery of metals and of weapons with which to combat evil. Hushang also harnessed the rivers and produced lush fields and meadows. He domesticated animals and used their products as a source of untold prosperity for Yazdan's kingdom.

Tahmuras, who succeeded Hushang, chose wisdom as his weapon against Ahriman:

[With Wisdom, I shall create Order
Following that with a palace and a court,]
I will restrain the Div, will reign supreme,
And use the useful for the common gold." 8

Under Tahmuras, the domestication of animals was perfected, weaving was introduced, and plans were devised to eradicate the race of the divs. These plans called for an extraordinary king. Could Tahmuras be that king?

Tahmuras,
Purged of his faults and glorious with the Grace,
Bound Ahriman with spells and rode him horsewise
At whiles around the world.9

Ahriman did not give up easily. Once it became apparent that he could not withstand the full impact of Tahmuras' assault, he took refuge in a ruse. He offered to teach Tahmuras the thirty common languages of man and beasts, including Latin (rumi), Arabic (tazi), Old Persian (parsi), Soghdian (soqdi), Chinese (chini), and Middle Persian (Pahlavi). Using the knowledge thus gained, Tahmuras elevated the level of the prosperity of his kingdom. Under Jamshid, the next king, the farr encompassed both the secular and the spiritual domains:

"Mine is the Grace," he said, "I am both king
And archimage, I will restrain ill-doers
And make for souls a path toward the light." 10

In administration, Jamshid followed tradition. He introduced the finer approaches to weaving and the production of elegant and luxurious objects. He also launched a number of innovations, among them the division of people into four distinct castes and guilds.11 Under Jamshid, artisans, merchants, priests, warriors, and tillers of the land knew their place in society:

Then to the joy of all he founded castes
For every craft; it took him fifty years.
Distinguishing one caste as sacerdotal
To be employed in sacred offices,
He separated it from other folk
And made its place of service on the mountains
That God might be adored in quietude.
Arrayed for battle on the other hand
Were those who formed the military caste;
They were the lion-men inured to war--
The Lights of armies and of provinces--
Whose office was to guard the royal throne
And vindicate the nation's name for valour.
The third caste was the agricultural,
All independent tillers of the soil,
The sowers and the reapers--men whom none
Upbraideth when they eat. Though clothed in rags,
The wearers are not slaves, and sounds of chiding
Reach not their ears. They are free men and labour
Upon the soil safe from dispute and contest.

. . . . . . . . . . .

The fourth caste was the artizans [sic]. They live
By doing handiwork--a turbulent crew,
Who being always busied with their craft
Are given much to thought. Jamshid thus spent
Another fifty years and did much good,
For each man learnt his place and others' too.12

Jamshid brought the full import of the farr within his control and used it to improve both his own status as king and the living conditions of his subjects. Using knowledge placed at his disposal by the divs, he built magnificent palaces and embellished them with precious gems. To immortalize his efforts at good government, which had resulted in the eradication of death from the face of the earth, and to welcome the arrival of a new epoch, he inaugurated a magnificent celebration. Called the Now Ruz (new year), the celebration of the event continues to the present. Jamshid's actions seemed to have sealed the fate of Ahriman, but not for long:

The people scattered jewels, and bestowed
Upon the day the name of New Year's Day,
The first of Farwardin and of the year,
When limbs repose from labour, hearts from strife.
The noble chieftains held a festival,
Called for the goblet, wine, and minstrelsy,
And ever since that time that glorious day
Remaineth the memorial of that Shah.
Thus things continued for three centuries,
And all the while men never looked on death [.]13

While preoccupied with the rearrangement of the visible aspects of his kingdom, Jamshid allowed his domain to fall victim to Ahriman, whose agents, by introducing writing and geometry, had led the king away from his mission. Jamshid was now obsessed with the idea that he should reach the stars:

These works achieved, Jamshid ambitioned
Rank loftier still, and by his royal Grace
Made him a throne, with what a wealth of gems
Inlaid! which when he willed the divs took up
And bare from earth to heaven.14

The excessively opulent world of Jamshid now became the source of his arrogance. The deputy of Yazdan on earth summoned his chiefs and mu'bads to aggrandize himself. "Who among the kings of the past," he asked, "eradicated death from the face of the earth?" And he did not stop there. Feeling that he was in full control of the physical aspect of the world, Jamshid reached to supplant Yazdan. "You owe me your life and your repose," he proclaimed to his chiefs and mu'bads," and that makes me your God," Jamshid concluded.

Jamshid's conceit cost him his farr:

[A]nd God's Grace departed from him,
The world was filled with din, the Court deserted,
. . . . . . . .
[T]he crime that equalled him with God,
Brought on disaster and o'erturned the state.15

Victorious at last, Ahriman assumed the rulership of the world. But everywhere he turned, vestiges of Yazdan confronted him. The land was prosperous, and death no longer existed. Drawing on Ahriman's knowledge of geometry and writing, Jamshid had perfected the physical aspect of Yazdan's creation.

Puzzled, Ahriman cast a demonic scheme. Assuming the form of a human-consuming dragon, he ascended the throne and demanded daily sacrifice to appease his voracious appetite. In droves, people were killed and fed to the beast to keep him happy. Could Ahriman depopulate Yazdan's world?

The purpose of the foul Div shrewdly scan:
Had he conceived perchance a secret plan
To rid the world of all the race of man? 16

But lengthy as Zahhak's rule was, it came to an end before he could devour the last human being, that is, before he could eradicate the seed of Kayumars, Fereydun.17 Fereydun confronted the evil Zahhak and imprisoned him in a cave in mount Damavand.

Kayumars was the first human being and the first monarch of the cosmic age. Fereydun is the first king of the mythic age.18 His long rule affords us a better look at his administration and time. We learn, for instance, that he inspired unity and might in the early stages of his rule but that, in the end, his kingdom was fraught with discord and division. Fereydun divided his world by assigning Rum and the west to Salm, by assigning him an army, and charging him with the defense of the western borders.19 He assigned Turan and China to Tur, to whom he assigned a similar army, and dispatched him to the eastern marches of the empire.20 To Iraj, his youngest and favorite son, he bestowed the rest of his domain, which included Iran. This division appeared equitable to Fereydun but not to his elder son, Tur, or to his second born, Salm.

When Iraj ascended the throne in the heartland, Fereydun stayed in residence with him. Salm and Tur conspired and, before mounting an assault on the heartland with their combined forces, informed Fereydun of their intentions. Knowing his sons well, Fereydun ignored their threat; he did not ask Iraj to step down. But Iraj, good at heart, decided to visit his brothers and bring them joy even at the expense of giving up his crown.

When Iraj arrived in Turan, Tur assaulted him and, fearing that the combined forces of Turan and Iran might proclaim Iraj their sole king, with the help of Salm, slew him. The brothers then sent Iraj's head to Fereydun as proof of the seriousness of their threat. They were certain that the old man's only alternative would be to choose Tur as his successor. Like Kayumars before him, however, the aged Fereydun had taught Manuchihr, Iraj's grandson (from Iraj's daughter) the secret of divine rulership.

For the first time in Iranian history, Fereydun marshalled the priests, the nobles, and the other classes of society to aid the throne in achieving its goal. When the preparations for mobilizing the army were complete, Fereydun asked Manuchihr to take the center. He assigned the left wing to Garshasp and the right to Sam and Qubad.

Even though Manuchihr's army displayed the Kaviyan flag, the banner forged from the blacksmith Kaveh's leather apron, Salm and Tur refused to recognize the legitimacy of his claim to kingship:

What though there was a daughter to Iraj,
Hast thou a right to signet, crown, and throne?21

Manuchihr ascribed his legitimacy to King Fereydun rather than to Iraj. He then attacked the combined forces of Turan and Rum and routed them. Tur and Salm retreated and pondered their plight. They decided to ambush Manuchihr and kill him. Their plot, however, was discovered and both were eventually eliminated.

With the sources of discord rooted out, Iran became whole once again. The times, however, were not tranquil. After Manuchihr, Iran lacked a king of the caliber of Fereydun and Iraj to bring justice to the people. Furthermore, a weakened Iran fell prey to the forces of Zabulistan. Once exhausted, it was invaded by Pashang, the king of Turan, who had monitored the war across his border while waiting for an opportune moment to strike at both belligerents. In this war Pashang's son, Afrasiyab, came to the fore and was given the command of the armies of Arjasp, Garsivaz, Barman, Kulbad, and Huzhabr against Iran's new and oppressive king, Nawzar.

In the wars that followed, Pashang did not do well. His son, Afrasiyab, was defeated by Kayqubad and his assembly of knights. Forced to evacuate all the lands south of the Oxus, Pashang sued for peace, asking that the border originally demarcated by Fereydun be accepted as the boundary between Iran and Turan:

Tur brought calamity on blest Iraj
Upon a question touching crown and throne.
On this I say that feuds should not endure
For ever, and if vengeance for Iraj
Was owing it was wreaked by Minuchihr.
In that first settlement by Faridun,
Whose object was a just apportionment,
It will be well for us to acquiesce
And not transgress the precedents of kings.
From Turkestan to Ma wara 'u'n-Nahr,
Whose boundary is Jihun, that is our share.
When Faridun was Shah Iraj ne'er saw it,
But had from him his blessing and Iran.
If we transgress these boundaries and fight
We make earth strait to us, the scimitars
Will clash, God will be wroth, and we shall lose
Our portion in both worlds. What Faridun
Divided unto Salm;, Tur , and Iraj,
Let us retain and then be friends henceforth,
For earth itself is worth not so much bale.22

This age, too, like the cosmic age, ends on a sad note. As Afrasiyab, the embodiment of evil, issues from the East and outshines the heroes of Iran, the capricious Kayka'us is imprisoned in a fort somewhere in the mountains of Hamavaran (Yemen). Iran waits for yet another savior to bring justice to its people. The Iran-Turan Wars

The war between the neighboring kingdoms of Iran and Turan begins with the story of the birth and childhood of Siyavosh, followed by the story of his exile and martyrdom. This life story tells of how princes were brought up, groomed, and taught responsibility; of how seriously children felt about keeping a covenant with their father and their Creator and of the feelings of Iran's first man to go into exile among Iran's enemies.

Son of Kayka'us and the grandson of Kayqubad, Siyavosh was born to the king of Iran by the daughter of a noble Turanian whose lineage included both Fereydun and Garsivaz, son of Pashang. She was found by Tus 23 and Giv 24 while hunting.25 Their quarrel over her ownership brought the girl to the court of Kayka'us where the king asked the girl about her lineage:

He questioned her: "What is thy lineage,
For thou art fairy-like in countenance?"
"I am of high birth on my mother's side,"
She said," my father sprang from Faridun.26
My father's father is prince Garsiwaz,27
Whose tents now occupy yon border land."28

The champions' quarrel was settled by the king who gave the girl to neither. Instead, he placed her in his own harem where she gave birth to Siyavosh.

At the age of about seven, Siyavosh was entrusted to Rustam to be taught chivalry and the ethic of kings. Rustam took the child to Zabulistan and treated him as if he were his own son.29 In Zabulistan, Siyavosh learned riding, archery, and wrestling. He was also instructed in the fine arts of conversation, drinking, and merry-making.

When Siyavosh was about twenty years of age, he returned to the court and was assigned his own quarters. For the next seven years, Kayka'us honored the youth, tested him, and in time bestowed the governorship of Quhistan upon him. Siyavosh remained in Quhistan until his mother died. He then returned to the court to mourn her death.

Learning about the return of Siyavosh, the ladies of the harem--sisters of the prince and wives of the king--asked their sire to send Siyavosh to them. The king obliged:30

Thy sisters and Sudabah, in affection
A mother to thee, are within the bower.31

Siyavosh asked Kayka'us to exempt him from the visit, but Kayka'us persisted. When Siyavosh entered the harem, he met Sudabeh, his step-mother, who held him tightly in her arms for an unusually long period. Her close embrace disturbed the prince:

When Siyawush appeared within the veil
Sudabah hastened to descend the throne,
Advanced with graceful gait, saluted him,
Embraced him long, long kissed his eyes and face,
And wearied not to look at him.32

Joseph-like in mien, Siyavosh was endowed with outward as well as inner beauty. Recognizing Siyavosh's merit as a future king, Sudabeh, who had married Kayka'us for his power rather than for himself, tried to attract the prince to herself and marry him to her daughter. The prince refused:

"Far better hold my pure heart's funeral rites
Than take a consort from among my foes.
I have been told by famous warriors
Of all the doings of Hamavaran [.]" 33

Failing, the frustrated Sudabeh impudently offered herself to the prince. She apparently thought that by engaging the youth in an act for which he could be blackmailed, she would reach her goal:

I stand before thee and I give to thee
Myself and my sweet life. I will fulfil
Whate'er thou asketh me--thy whole desire--
And let my head be taken in thy toils."34

The prince, refusing to soil his covenant with his father, resisted Sudabeh's temptations. Frustrated, Sudabeh accused him of having made lustful advances. She informed her husband that the prince had assaulted her with the intention of raping her:

Then he tried to force me,
And handled me with hands as hard as stones.
I would not grant his wishes. All my hair
He tore and caused these scratches on my face [.]35

The prince, of course, denied the allegations, which placed Kayka'us in a quandary. Sudabeh who continued to accuse the prince of rape finally produced a stillborn child as proof of her accusations. Kayka'us took the matter to the assembly of the mu'bads for advice. The assembly advised the king to ask both Siyavosh and Sudabeh to undergo the trial by fire.

Sudabeh refused. Siyavosh, on the other hand, accepted. On the next day, he rode his horse through a mountain of burning wood and emerged, unblemished:

The noble hero nathless reappeared,
With rosy cheeks and smiles upon his lips.
A roar went up as men caught sight of him:
They cried: " The young Shah cometh from the fire!"36

Wounded, Sudabeh recoiled and worked other magic to make life at the court difficult for the prince. The unwise Kayka'us, too, unwittingly stoked the feud, by taking the case to the mu'bads for a decision and by forcing Siyavosh to undergo trial by fire. This allowed Sudabeh to torment the innocent youth even more.

An opportunity for escape appeared when Afrasiyab, Iran's enemy to the east, threatened to cross the Oxus with a hundred thousand warriors. As Kayka'us prepared to retaliate, the prince saw his chance to distance himself from the court. He volunteered to lead Kayka'us' army against Turan:

Perchance All-righteous God will set me free
Both from Sudaba and my sire's distrust [.]37

Kayka'us accepted Siyavosh's proposal and put an army together for him. Rustam was summoned to assist Siyavosh, and an army of 12,000 men from Pahlav, Pars, Kuch, Baluch, Gilan, and the plain of Saruch was assembled. Accompanied by his champions and five mu'bads, Siyavosh headed for Zabulistan.

After a month in Zabulistan, Siyavosh and Rustam continued their march, having added armies from Zabulistan, Kabulistan, and India to the host. As the army advanced toward the plain of Herat (Hari), other notables joined the assembled force. Siyavosh assigned Zange-i Shavaran to command the newly formed army and himself set out for Marvrud38 and Taliqan.39

At Balkh, Siyavosh stormed all the gates with mighty armies. In spite of Garsivaz' efforts to defend Balkh, the city fell after three days of fighting. Sipahram crossed the Oxus and returned to his king, Afrasiyab.

Siyavosh wrote a silken letter to Kayka'us and apprised him of his efforts to date. "In the course of a three-day battle," he wrote, "I conquered Balkh. Sipahram fled to the city of Tirmidh, and Barman, like an arrow shot, disappeared from sight."40 He then reported that the lands to the south of the Oxus were now his, and he asked the King's permission to conclude the war by crossing the river to Sughdia where Afrasiyab ruled and kept his army.

Kayka'us cautioned Siyavosh against haste. He reminded the prince of Afrasiyab's vile and cunning nature: "You have won a battle against Afrasiyab," the king wrote in reply, "haste might well cause you to lose the war. Rather than rushing into a war, you must keep your army together and wait where you are. Let temptation work on Afrasiyab and make him cross the Oxus and meet you." Siyavosh remained on the southern shore of the Oxus.

On the other side of the Oxus, Afrasiyab was informed by Garsivaz that Siyavosh, Rustam, and a mighty host from Iran had stormed Balkh and captured the city. Their champions, Garsivaz explained, wielded maces with heads as large as the head of a buffalo, and they numbered fifty for each man Garsivaz could field.

Garsivaz' glorification of the enemy host provoked Afrasiyab's anger. He had Garsivaz removed from his presence, ordered a thousand of his lords to transform Sughd into a Chinese dreamland, and prepare a banquet for him.

After the banquet, Afrasiyab retired to his quarters where the reality of the day's news descended upon him as a frightening dream in which he found his entourage and pavilion stranded in a desert teaming with vipers while vultures circled overhead. A violent wind blew his banner away, and streams of blood washed away his pavilion. He saw thousands of his warriors decapitated and strewn about the battlefield. Each warrior in the attacking Iranian army carried a spear with a head on it and carried a severed head on his lap. A thousand warriors wearing black robes assailed and captured him, tied his hands, and took him to Kayka'us who, flanked by his very young son, mocked him. Upon seeing him, Siyavosh sprang up and sliced Afrasiyab into two. The intensity of the dream woke Afrasiyab. His screams brought his courtiers, including Garsivaz, to his side.

Following Garsivaz' advice, Afrasiyab assembled his mu'bads, swore them to secrecy, and paid them handsomely. Then he discussed the contents of his dream with them. Trembling, the mu'bads agreed to interpret Afrasiyab's dream on the condition that the result of their interpretation not be taken personally. Afrasiyab agreed. The mu'bads then disclosed that the prince in Afrasiyab's dream was Siyavosh and that he would rout Turan if Afrasiyab were to continue his war with Iran. They further disclosed that, were Afrasiyab to kill Siyavosh, matters would become even worse: his death would lead to the annihilation of Turan.

The interpretation affected Afrasiyab greatly. To avoid further cause for vengeance, he assembled his champions, lords, and nobles the next morning to discuss the war with them. After much praise of his own past triumphs, he suggested that Turan should opt for peace. "After all," he said, "two-thirds of the world still belongs to us. Why not make it a tranquil one?"

For our part let us give the world some respite;
Death should not come upon men unawares.
The more part of the world is at my feet:
My court is in Iran and in Turan,
For see how many of the mighty men
Bring heavy tribute to me year by year!
Now if it be your minds I will dispatch
An embassy to Rustam;, and forthwith
Knock at the door of peace with Siyawush,
And send him every kind of precious gift."41

The problem thus settled, Afrasiyab stayed in Sughd and sent a delegation, with appropriate gifts, to the Iranian prince. The delegation, headed by Garsivaz, offered to sign a peace treaty:

I do not set my face against Iran.
All from the bank of the Jihun to Chin
Is mine, my home is Sughd;--a realm distinct.
In truth it is through Tur and Valiant Salm;
That all the world is thus turned upside down,
And since the innocent Iraj was slain
Our warriors' brains have lost their wits. Iran
Is not divided from Turan, but wars
And feuds prevented friendship. Now I trust
That God will give good days and joyful news.
He raised thee from the country of Iran,
And giveth thee the friendship of the brave.
Let thy fair fortune dower the world with peace,
Let war and every evil disappear.
Now Garsiwaz hath come to add his wits
To thine, and as the valiant Faridun
Erst shared the world among his gallant sons,
So be it now [.]42

A day's journey down the Oxus brought Garsivaz to Balkh where he was royally received by Siyavosh. Garsivaz presented his gifts to the prince and Rustam and disclosed the terms of the treaty.

Siyavosh presented the treaty to the war council which, after weighing the pros and cons of Afrasiyab's offer, decided to accept the terms provided that Afrasiyab offer a token of his goodwill as well.

Siyavosh's terms were stringent they specified that the Turanian army withdraw from previously held Iranian territory in the Oxus region and that a hundred of Afrasiyab's relatives, named by Rustam, be sent as hostages to Iran.

Afrasiyab frowned at the idea of sending his close relatives as hostages but, in the end, accepted the terms:

The monarch out of those whom Rustam; named
Selected some five score of his own kin,
And sent them unto Siyawush, bestowing
Upon them many gifts and benefits.
He then bade sound drums and clarions,
He struck the royal tent, evacuated
Bukhara, Sughd;, and Samarqand;, and Chach,
The land and ivory throne of Sipanjab,
And led his troops upon the way to Gang
Without excuses, pretexts, or delays.43

Elated with this easy victory, Siyavosh reciprocated Afrasiyab's kind gesture by sending the Turanian king many precious gifts. He also dispatched Rustam with a letter to Kayka'us:

I came to Balkh; this jocund spring, rejoicing;
But when Afrasiyab had news of me
The sparkling liquor darkened in his cup:
He saw that he was in a strait; the world
Was black and fortune fallen. His brother came
With gifts and many fair slaves richly dight
To me to seek protection from the Shah.
Afrasiyab will yield the crown and throne
Of kings, content with his own realm; observe
His station; never tread Iran's dark soil;
But wash all strife and vengeance from his heart,
And send as hostages a hundred kinsmen.44

Kayka'us rejected the peace treaty, informing Rustam that he wanted Afrasiyab dead. He further rebuked the national champion for having been duped by the guileful Afrasiyab. To the prince he wrote: "Prepare a huge bonfire and burn all the gifts sent by Afrasiyab. Send the hostages to Iran to be beheaded, ignore the treaty, and cross the Oxus immediately."

Rustam pleaded with Kayka'us to reconsider his order. He hoped that the king would not force the young prince to break his promise to the enemy. He reminded Kayka'us that Siyavosh had followed the king's orders and remained on the south shore of the Oxus. Besides, Rustam argued, breaking one's covenant was an unmanly act, an act against all the rules of chivalry that he had taught the prince. Nevertheless, Kayka'us did not heed Rustam's advice.

Kayka'us did not trust Afrasiyab. He felt that the demonic king had used magic to convince the gullible youth. "Would Afrasiyab care one bit," asked the king, "for the safety of his people in bondage?"

When God had meant that vengeance should be taken
And ills had asked a recompense of ill,
Ye sought to gain a heritage thereby,
And that it was which occupied your hearts.
Afrasiyab hath led your wits astray
By riches plundered from the innocent.
A hundred hapless, misbegotten Turkmans,
Who do not even know their fathers' names!
He will think little of such hostages:
They are to him as water in a stream.45

Kayka'us then ordered Siyavosh to relinquish his command to Tus and return from Balkh. Siyavosh refused:

"A hundred
Brave cavaliers, the kinsmen of the king,
Such famous men, our friends and innocent!
If I shall now dispatch them to the Shah,
He will not ask or think about their case,
But hang them all alive upon the gibbet.
How shall I justify myself to God?
Ill will befall me through my father's acts;
If I so madly fight Afrasiyab
Without a cause I shall incur God's wrath,
And people will cry shame [.]" 46

By openly defying his father and his king, Siyavosh placed himself in a precarious situation. His position was further aggravated by his farr (i.e., the wisdom, intelligence, personal fortitude and the foresight of a man who would be king). Was it not his farr that had frightened Afrasiyab and brought him to the negotiation table? What was he to do?

If I return
To court, surrendering the host to Tus,
That also will bring evil on my head.
I see ill right and left, and ill in front;
Sudaba too will do me naught but ill,
And I have not an inkling of God's will!"47

The night of decision, dark as the face of Ahriman, was before him. It refused to divulge what the next day would bring. But could it conceal the future from a man who carried the farr? Using his divine foresight, Siyavosh looked into his future and saw the final outcome, an outcome that, in the final analysis, spoke well for his decision to defect.

The next morning, Siyavosh summoned Bahram and Zange-i Shavaran and discussed the matter of relinquishing his command with them. "I am not happy at court," he said to the champions, "this was the reason I accepted this command in the first place. And I am not happy with my father's grandiose schemes to elevate himself at my expense":

"Now if the Shah
Is merely fighting for aggrandisement
He may have war and territory too,
But why such wanton bloodshed, such revenge
Stirred up in others' hearts?

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Shah
would rob me of both worlds, and yield me up
To Ahriman!" 48

"I have a covenant with the Creator," Siyavosh continued, "a covenant compared to which my father's wishes pale.49 All my experiences in this world have been painful ones. What the future brings cannot be different":

Would I had died, or never had been born,
Since I am fated to endure such bale
And taste of every poison in the world;
And yet the tree hath not attained full growth
Whose fruit is venom and the leafage loss! 50

"I have come to the conclusion," Siyavosh said to the Iranian champions, "that I have no alternative but to defect to the enemy. I am, therefore, relinquishing the command of this host to Bahram until the arrival of Tus. He is to put everything in order and hand the command down to Tus when the champion arrives. I also want Bahram to apprise Tus of the numbers, thrones, and treasures that are kept under the auspices of this command." The warriors were overwhelmed:

Bahram was sorely troubled when he heard,
While Zanga; son of Shawaran wept blood,
And cursed the country of Hamavaran.51

"And as for you, Zange," the prince continued, "I would like you to accompany the gifts and hostages from Turan back to Afrasiyab. While there, I would like you to represent me and ask Afrasiyab to allow me safe passage through Turan to a place where I can stay hidden from Kayka'us":

"Go tell Afrasiyab of what hath chanced.
Say: 'Through this peace my lot is one of war:
Thine are the sweets, the pang and poison mine,
Yet will I keep my covenant with thee
Albeit I shall lose the throne of might.
God is my refuge, heaven my covering,
The ground my throne. I rashly disobeyed
And cannot face the Shah. Give me a cistern
Where God appointeth and I may not hear
Aught of the evil nature of my sire,
But find for once a respite from his ire.' " 52

Afrasiyab listened to Siyavosh's message carefully. He then summoned his commander-in-chief, Piran, and discussed Siyavosh's proposal with him in private. After considering Kayka'us' future plans and Siyavosh's claim to the future rulership of Iran, Piran advised the king to admit the prince into Turan:

"Dost thou not see that Kai Kaus is old
And must depart? Then Siyawush will take
The wide world, wealth untoiled for, hall and palace;
Thus wilt thou gain both realms, their crown and state:
The man that geteth them is fortunate."53

Convinced of the possibility of a great future, Afrasiyab invited Siyavosh to Turan and assured him of his own support as well as the support of his people:

"For all Turan will do thee reverence,
And I for my part long to have thy love.
Then thou and I will be as son and sire--
A sire who is a slave before his son." 54

Encouraged by Afrasiyab's kind words, Siyavosh addressed his army, asking the commanders to heed Bahram. He then set forth to meet the envoys who had crossed the Oxus to conduct him and his private army into exile:

At sunset,
When air grew dark and earth ungenial,
The prince, his face obscured by tears, marched forth
Toward Jihun with all his company.
When he had reached Tirmidh;, doors, roofs, and streets
Were full of scent and colour like the spring
Up to the gates of Chach: thou wouldst have said:--
"It is a bride with crown and necklaces."
At every stage were carpets laid and viands
Prepared, the whole way to Kachar Bashi,
Where he dismounted and remained a while.55

The Turanians, especially Piran and his entourage of a thousand noblemen, welcomed the prince:

On hearing: "Siyawush hath crossed the river
With troops to us, his envoy hath arrived,"
Afrasiyab bade all the chief estates
Go forth with kettledrums to welcome him.
Piran chose out one thousand of his kin
To meet the prince with gifts [.]56

On the way to Afrasiyab's court, Piran talked to the prince about his own feelings toward Afrasiyab and about the prince's future with him. "Afrasiyab," Piran said, "is like a father to you; he loves you dearly and although all the world might see him differently, Afrasiyab is wise, intelligent, and God fearing. I am one of his relatives, and I alone have a host of a hundred thousand warriors in these parts."

Siyavosh's heart, however, was elsewhere. The farther they rode into Turan, the heavier his heart became:

For he recalled the hocktide in Zabol
When it was decked up to Kabulistan,
And he had gone as guest of Rustam; there
With all the famous men for company,
And how the folk had showered down gold and gems,
And sifted musk and ambergris o'erhead.57

If Siyavosh had any reservations, the welcome that Afrasiyab gave the party erased them from his heart. The two hugged each other affectionately and kissed. They became great friends:

Afrasiyab gave heart and soul to him,
And could not sleep for thinking.58

Afrasiyab, however, continued to regard Siyavosh as his only sure avenue to the domination of the lands of the Kayanian:

"[My son! be ever glad and conquering.]
Thou art a prince, the glory of the throne,
A royal crown and backbone of the host." 59

Siyavosh accepted his fate as an exile in enemy territory. He accompanied the king on his hunting expeditions and, within a year, gained the respect of the Turanian army:

Thus while a year went by
They shared all griefs and pleasures equally.60

During this time, Siyavosh married Jarirah, Piran's daughter and settled down. A son, Farud, was born to them. Dictated by circumstances and encouraged by Piran, he also proposed to marry Farangis, Afrasiyab's daughter. His proposal tested Afrasiyab's trust in Siyavosh:

I know not whether love will take the prince
Back to Iran, or fix all his regards
On us; but why drink poison wittingly?
One must not lightly take a serpent's breath.

. . . . . . . . . .

Piran replied: "O king! Let not thy heart
Be grieved hereat. Those born to Siyawush
Will be possessed of wits, reserved, and shrewd.
Trust not what readers of the stars may say,
Deal with his case according to thy wisdom,
For from this noble pair a prince will spring,
Whose head will be exalted to the sun
As king both in Iran and in Turan.
Then those two kingdoms will repose from strife [.]" 61

Patiently arguing, Piran convinced Afrasiyab that a union between his family and the seed of Fereydun and of Kayka'us would ultimately heal the wounds of both war-torn lands. Afrasiyab finally agreed. Piran then involved Gulshahr, his consort wife, in the matter:

Piran dispatched a message to Gulshahr;
Like smoke that she should go without delay
To Farangis to take her to the prince.
Thereon Gulshahr; told happy Farangis
That she should go that night to Siyawush,
And ornament his palace with a Moon.62

When the marriage between Siyavosh and Farangis was over and the festivities were at an end, Afrasiyab gave Siyavosh the rulership of the eastern provinces of Turan and invited him to settle wherever he pleased. Siyavosh chose Khutan, Piran's land and, accompanied by the old warrior, moved to the city of Gang Dezh:

"The king saith: 'O illustrious chieftain!
I have bestowed upon thee all the realm
From here to Chin: go round and view the lands.
In any city where thou findest ease,
Contentment, and no more to be desired,
Abide in gladness and prosperity;
Stint not thy soul one moment of delight.' "

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

They went with merriment toward Khutan
With all the famous men escorting them,
Because Piran, that general favourite,
Was of that state, and Siyawush had promised
To spend a month with him.63

In the seclusion of Khutan, Siyavosh reviewed the past and thought about the events that had catapulted him into Turan. Guided by the farr, he arrived at a frightening conclusion. He foresaw that a war between Iran and Turan was inevitable and that Afrasiyab would murder him. He apprised Piran of his findings and concluded his ominous look into the future by telling Piran that after his death, Afrasiyab would become extremely remorseful.

Piran did not believe Siyavosh. Within a week, however, a letter arrived. In it Afrasiyab commanded Piran, the commander of the Turanian army, to take his army and rush to the confines of the empire:

"Choose from the warriors
A host and go toward the sea of Chin.
Thence cross [Makran to India;
And continue your march] to the river Sind;,
Demand the tribute from the provinces,
And over-run the borders of Khazar."64

Siyavosh's premonitions proved correct. Gradually Afrasiyab became concerned about Siyavosh's quick ascent to prosperity. To obtain more information about the events in Gang Dezh, he sent his brother, Garsivaz, there for a visit. He asked Garsivaz to spy on Siyavosh and report anything that struck him as unusual.

Garsivaz was jealous of Siyavosh and Farangis, and of Siyavosh's newborn son, Farud, by the daughter of Piran. Hoping that one day he would rule the beautiful Gang Dezh himself, upon his return to Afrasiyab, he gave a damaging report on Siyavosh and his activities:

Garsiwaz
Said to his brother: "Siyawush, O king!
Hath wholly changed, the envoys of Ka'us
Come often secretly, he correspondeth
With Rum and Chin, and drinketh to his father [.]"65

Court intrigue reached new heights when Garsivaz was made the liaison between the palaces. He concocted events on either side and sowed discord far and wide. He frightened both kings, especially Afrasiyab who was already in awe of Siyavosh. About his visits to the court of Siyavosh, he responded:

Now Siyawush showed no regard for me,
Nor even came to meet me on the way,
Would hear no words, would not peruse thy letter,
But set me on my knees below his throne.
He had much correspondence with Iran,
And kept his city's portals shut on us.
What with a host from Rum and one from Chin
There is a constant bruit within the land.
Unless thou actest promptly thou wilt have
Naught left but wind. While thou art hesitating
He will attack thee, and obtain both realms,
For should he lead his army towards Iran
What man would dare come forth to challenge him? 66

Infuriated, Afrasiyab mobilized his army and headed for Khutan. Upon hearing of this move, Siyavosh prepared his pregnant wife, Farangis, to face the future without him:

This is the fifth month of thy pregnancy
With our illustrious and growing babe:
This precious Tree of thine will bring forth Fruit,
A glorious monarch; name him Kai Khusrau;,
And in thy sorrowing find peace in him [.]"67

Siyavosh informed Farangis of his own imminent death and foretold that sometime soon an Iranian champion would come and secretly take her and the child she carried to the Oxus river and to Iran. He even foresaw that their son would become king:

And there will come a saviour from Iran,
One with his loins girt up by God's command,
Who will convey thee and thy son in haste
Toward the Jihun. Thy son will have the throne,
And rule o'er fowl and fish. A host will come
For vengeance from Iran and shake the world.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

To vindicate mine honour! Battle-shouts
Will rise, and Kai Khusrau; will vex the age;
Then Rustam;'s Rakhsh; will trample earth, despising
Turanian folk, and thou wilt see no vengeance
Ta'en for me till the Resurrection-day
Save by the mace and trenchant scimitar.68

At the end, he instructed his steed, Bihzad, to allow no one but the avenging Kaykhusrau to ride him:

Long while he whispered in his charger's ear,
And said: "Be prudent, have to do with none.
When to avenge me Kai Khusrau; shall come
It is on thee that he must put the bridle,
So now renounce the stable once for all,
For thou shalt carry him to his revenge.
Be thou his charger, trample on the world,
And with thy hoofs sweep foemen from the earth." 69

Having completed his will and testament, Siyavosh killed all his other horses, burned his palaces with their untold riches, and rode Bihzad to meet Afrasiyab. In the field, as his thousand Iranian warriors faced the army of Afrasiyab, Siyavosh ordered his commanders to refrain from fighting. He was captured by Afrasiyab who turned him over to Gorvy to be slain on the roadside:

"Take him
Beside the road and let him be beheaded
On some bare spot where grasses never grow,
And pour his blood upon the burning earth.
Let there be no delay and have no fears." 70

Afrasiyab refused to comment on the sin for which Siyavosh was being executed. All he recalled were the words of Garsivaz:

The plain is full
Of vultures feeding on Iranian dead,
And if thou fearest vengeance there is cause.
Should Siyawush cry out earth would appear
All mace and scimitar from Rum to Chin.
Hath he not done thee wrong enough that thou
Shouldst listen weakly to what others say?
The snake's tail thou hast crushed and bruised its head;
Now wilt thou deck its body with brocade?
If thou shalt spare his life I will depart
To some retreat and perish."71

Gorvy and Damur also added their voices to that of Garsivaz, urging Afrasiyab to kill Siyavosh and save his realm from all future threats. Afrasiyab remained hesitant. He could not justify Siyavosh's death to himself:

"I have myself beheld no fault in him;
Albeit astrologers declare that ill
will come to me through him, and if I shed
His blood revenge will raise dust in Turan
And dim the sun [.]" 72

And Farangis asked for mercy:

Why hast thou wrapped thy heart up in deceit?
Dost thou not from thy height perceive the abyss?
Take not a monarch's and a guiltless head;
The Judge of sun and moon will disapprove.
When Siyawush departed from Iran
He did thee homage--thee of all the world--
Gave umbrage to the Shah, left treasures, crown,
And throne to make thee his support and shelter.
What hast thou seen in him to make thee quit
The path of right? No man beheadeth kings
And long retaineth his own sovereignty.
Wrong not my blameless self too, for the world
Is fleeting and is full of sobs and sighs.73

Despite her efforts, Farangis could not reach her father. Afrasiyab ordered Gorvy to transfer Siyavosh to a fort high in the mountains and, away from Farangis, behead him.74 Gorvy followed his master's orders:

When he was past the city and the host
They bore and dragged him bound upon the plain,
And then Gurwi received from Garsiwaz
A blue-steel dagger for the bloody deed.
He dragged the prince on by the hair afoot
And when he came to where the mark had stood.
. . . . . . . . . .

Flung to the ground the mighty Elephant,
And showed no shame or reverence for rank,
But set a golden basin on the ground,
Turned up the prince's face as 'twere a sheep's
Cut off the silver Cypress' head and filled
The bowl with blood. Gurwi took up the bowl
And emptied it where he had been commanded.
From that blood presently there sprang a plant,
Which I will teach thee how to recognise,
For it is called "The Blood of Siyawush." 75