Author: Moses, according to tradition
Date: Around the year 1400 BC
Theme: The presence of Jehovah guides the people from Sinai to the Transjordan
Key Words: Census, murmurings, purity, tabernacle of reunion
Author: The authorship of Numbers is traditionally attributed to Moses, the central personage of the book. Numbers 33:2 makes a specific reference to Moses who wrote about the journey in the desert.
The term Numbers is taken from the title of this book (arithmoi) in the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the Septuagint, which was kept in the Latin translation of the Vulgate (numeri). In the Hebrew text, the name of the book is In the desert, taken from the first phrase in the text, "Jehovah spoke to Moses in the desert of the Sinai".
Date: If the authorship of Moses is assumed, it was probably written around the year 1400 BC, shortly before his death. The events written about in the book extend through about forty years and begin shortly after Exodus, in the year 1440 BC.
Content: The division of the first texts of the Old Testament into five books or rolls (called "The Pentateuch", i.e., "five rolls"), shouldn't conceal the fact that each one of them is a continuation of the previous. Moses, whose birth is related in Exodus 2 and his death in Deuteronomy 34, is the figure that unifies that which is told from Exodus until Deuteronomy.
The Book of Numbers continues the history of the events of the Mosaic period that began in Exodus. It begins with Israel still in the Sinai. The Israelites' entrance into Sinai is related in Exodus 19:1 and their exit in Numbers 10:11.
The Book of Numbers has two principal divisions: 1) the section that contains what Moses received when he found himself in the Sinai (1:1-10:10); and 2) the journeys in the desert that cover the route between Sinai and the fields of Moab, beyond the Jordan, in the Promised Land (10:11-36:13). The instructions from Sinai deal with the preparations for the journey and the rest of the book with the work day itself.
The instructions in Sinai (1:1-10:10) cover a great variety of topics, but those related to the preparations for traveling occupy the first place. Chapters 1-4 contain a series of instructions about the realization of a census of various groups, followed by a report about the fulfillment of the task. Chapters 5 and 6 deal with ritual impurity, conjugal infidelity and the Nazarites. In chapter 7 the leaders of the people bring offerings to the tabernacle. Chapter 8 is occupied with the consecration of the Levites. Chapter 9 with the celebration of the Passover, the cloud and pillar of fire over the tabernacle; the instruments used to convoke the people are reconsidered in 10:1-10, where the instructions are imparted by means of trumpets.
The section of Numbers that deals with the journey (10:11-36:13) is divided into two parts. The first, 10:11-25:18 describes the death of the generation that was liberated from Egypt by Jehovah. Key aspects in the section are the stories of the complaints, the rebellions and the disobedience of the first generation that caused their death. Moses' leadership ability is pushed to the limit in Numbers as the people grumble about everything from the food they have to eat to the water supply. Time after time GOD supplies their needs by sending manna, quail, and water; but still they cry out in a stubborn spirit. Finally, in exasperation, Moses struck a rock with his rod to produce drinking water. This was a clear violation of GOD's command, since He had instructed Moses to speak to the rock. Because of his disobedience, Moses isn't allowed to enter the Promised Land.
The second subsection (26-26) narrates the preparations of the second generation to enter into the Promised Land. They begin with a new census (compare with chapter 1), which reveals that all the first generation, except Joshua, Caleb, and Moses had died in the desert. The section ends with the partitioning of the land among the tribes after having entered the Promised Land.
Historical Setting: The events in the Book of Numbers cover a span of about 39 or 40 years in Israel's history - from 1445 BC, when they left their encampment at Mount Sinai, to 1405 BC, when they entered the land of Canaan by crossing the Jordan River near Jericho. These were years of preparation as well as punishment. Their harsh life in the desert wilderness prepared them for the task of pushing out the Canaanites.
The Book of Numbers clearly shows why the Israelites did not proceed immediately to take the land after leaving Mount Sinai. Moses chose 12 spies or scouts and sent them into Canaan along its southern border to explore the land and check its defenses. Ten of them returned with a pessimistic report about the warlike Canaanites who held the land. But two of the spies, Joshua and Caleb, encouraged the people to take the land; for GOD had promised to prepare the way. When the Israelites refused, GOD sentenced them to two generations of aimless wandering in the wilderness before they could enter the Promised Land (Num. 14:1-38).
Theological Contributions (IBD): The Book of Numbers presents the concept of GOD's correcting wrath upon His own disobedient people. Through their rebellion, the Hebrews had broken the covenant. Even Moses was not exempt from GOD's wrath when he disobeyed GOD.
But even in His wrath, GOD did not give up on His people. While He might punish them in the present, He was still determined to bless them and bring them ultimately into a land of their own. Even the false prophet Balaam recognized this truth about GOD's sovereign purpose. Balaam declares: "GOD is not a man, that He should lie, nor a son of man, that He should repent. Has He said, and will He not do it? Or has He spoken, and will He not make it good" (23:19).
Special Considerations (IBD): The Israelite Warriors counted in the two censuses in the Book of Numbers have been a puzzle to Bible scholars (see chapters 1 and 26). In each case, they add up to an army of more than 600,000. If this is correct, then the total Israelite population must have been more than 2,000,000 people. Such a figure seems out of line for this period of ancient history when most nations were small.
One possible explanation is that the word translated thousands in English could have meant something like units, tents, or clans in the Hebrew language. If so, a much smaller number was in mind. But other scholars believe there is no reason to question the numbers, since the Israelites did increase dramatically during their years of enslavement in Egypt (Ex. 1:7-12).
Personal Application: One of the most known events in Numbers is the negative report of the 10 spies, opposed to Joshua and Caleb (13:25-33). A severe punishment resulted from that (14:20-38). We learn from this lesson the profound consequences that can spring from a negative attitude and lack of faith. When GOD makes us a promise we should respond with optimism, not pessimism.
The frequent murmuring of the Israelites, even in the midst of GOD's continuous provision, shows us the need to maintain a pleasing attitude before the LORD, even when we are in great need (Phil. 4:6).
The book of Numbers also shows us the side of GOD's face that is only revealed on exceptional occasions: his wrath (14:20-38). Although GOD is mercy and love, he is also just. When mankind repeatedly rejects him, He must judge it (Heb. 9:27); when his children disobey time and time again, he must punish them, sometimes with great severity (Heb. 12:3-11).
Christ Revealed: Jesus is presented in Numbers as He who provides. The apostle Paul writes that Christ was the spiritual rock that followed the Israelites through the desert and provided them spiritual food (I Cor. 10:4). The rock that gave water appears two times in the story of the desert (chapter 20; Exod. 17). Paul emphasizes how Christ provides for those whom he has freed from bondage.
The Messianic figure of the King of Israel is prophesied by Balaam in 24:17: "I shall see him, but not now; I shall behold him, but not near: A star will come out of Jacob, and a Sceptre shall rise out of Israel". Judaic tradition grants Messianic significance to this verse, as the Qumran texts demonstrate. Jesus Christ is the Messiah, according to the unanimous message of the New Testament, and the true King of whom Balaam speaks.
The Holy Spirit in Action: The Holy Spirit is spoken of directly in chapter 11. There, the Spirit is shown carrying out two functions; anointing for leadership and inspiring prophecy. In verse 16, Moses pleads for the LORD's help to fulfill the duties of his leadership. The response says that Jehovah took the Spirit that was upon Moses (identified in verse 7 as the Spirit of Jehovah) and placed it on the rest of the leadership. Even a leader like Moses wasn't capable of doing everything and needed co-workers filled with the Spirit to carry out their tasks.
When the Spirit was placed upon the elders they began to prophecy (v.25). Only the 70 designated elders prophesied. When Joshua wanted to prevent the two elders who remained the camp from also prophesying, Moses responded that it would be better that all GOD's people should receive the Holy Spirit and should prophecy. This hope of Moses' is picked up in Joel 2:28-32 and is finally fulfilled on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:16-21). When the Spirit was shed on all those present.
Theme (HBH) The Book of Numbers is more than a mere travelogue tracing Israel's journey from Mount Sinai to the plains of Moab. The narratives and laws in Numbers give the conditions of Israel's possession and enjoyment of the Promised Land.These conditions included an unflinching desire to possess the land GOD promised, respect for GOD-ordained leaders, and concern for maintaining the holiness of the covenant community and of the land of promise. Frequent warnings of the danger of rebellion and the certainty of GOD's judgment on sin likewise prodded Israel ahead to the Goal of possession of the land.
Numbers documents that when GOD's people were faithful to the covenant conditions, their travels and lives went well. When they were disobedient, however, they paid the price in defeat, delay, and death in the wilderness. The book thus teaches subsequent generations that covenant conformity brings blessing but covenant rejection brings tragedy and sorrow.
Numbers also documents the effective organization of the tribes into a discernible religious and political community in preparation for their conquest and occupation of Canaan. This explains the extraordinary interest in the numbering of the tribes, their arrangement for travel and encampment, and the centralizing of the tabernacle and priesthood as the focal point of Israel's life as a covenant people. This also explains the introduction of new legislation, especially of a cultic or ceremonial nature. The commandments and statutes appropriate for the forthcoming settlement in Canaan could not in every case be relevant and therefore provides special instruction for those times and conditions.
Literary Forms (HBH): The great bulk of Numbers describes a nearly forty-year period of Israel's history in a story or almost "diary" form. Moses apparently kept a log book in which he noted significant events that could and did constitute his personal memoirs (compare 33:2). Numbers, then, is history but narrative history of an individualistic type.
In addition to narrative materials, Numbers contains census lists (1:5-46; 3:14-39; 4:34-49; 26:5-51), an organization manual for encampment and march (2:1-3), and regulations for the priesthood and Levitical orders (3:40-4:33; 8:5-26; 18:1-32). It also contains laws of sacrifice and ritual (5:1-7:89; 9:1-10; 15:1-41; 19:1-22; 28:1-30:16), instructions about the conquest and division of the land (32:33-42; 34:1-35:44), and laws regulating inheritance (36:1-12). Numbers even contains poetry; a portion of "The Book of the Wars of Yahweh" (21:14-15), the "Song of the Well (21:17-18), the "Song of Heshbon" (21:27-30), and the various prophetic oracles of Balaam (23:7-10,18-24; 24:3-9,15-24).
This rich diversity of forms is one of the major characteristics of biblical history writing. The story of GOD's redemptive purposes for Israel and all the world is told in narrative punctuated and illuminated by command, exhortation, illustration, proverb, and song. Numbers is thus not mere history but torah, instruction in holy living. Though the types of literature in Numbers are diverse, the goal of the possession of GOD's promised land is a constant unifying factor.
Purpose and Theology (HBH): The diverse materials in Numbers point toward a common goal - the possession of the land GOD promised the patriarchs. Numbers opens with a census that reveals GOD had blessed Israel with the strength necessary for the conquest of the promised land (11:-2:34). Organization for worship (3:1-4:49), instructions for preserving the purity of GOD's people(5:1-6:27), and the building of the tabernacle (7:1-8:26) all made possible GOD's dwelling with this people (9:15) - a necessary condition for conquest (10:11-36), their hearts repeatedly longed for Egypt (11:1-35; 14:2-4; 20:2-5; 21:4-5). They rejected Moses, the leader GOD had appointed to lead them to the land (12:1-15). Ultimately, Israel rejected GOD's gift, Israel was condemned to wander in the desert (15:1-22:1). Again and again Israel rebelled against GOD's chosen leaders and suffered judgment (16:1-50). Even Moses failed to trust in the power of GOD's Word (20:1-29) and was excluded from the land of promise.
GOD, however, is true to His promises. GOD overcame obstacles to Israel's possession of the land - the external threat of Balaam's curses (22:2-24:25) and the internal threat of Israel's idolatry and immorality (25:1-18). After the death of the rebellious generation, GOD again blessed Israel with a force capable of conquering the land (chapter 26). GOD rewarded the daughters of Zelophehad who, unlike the previous generation, earnestly desired their share in the land (27:1-11; 35:50-36:13). GOD's provision of Joshua as Moses' successor prepared for the successful conquest of the land.
Even the legal texts in Numbers anticipated life in the promised land. These texts regulated its worship (chapter 15) and maintained its purity (chapters 19, 35). The Book of Exodus tells how the Israelites placed themselves under GOD's sovereignty - with all the responsibilities and privileges that entailed - by accepting the terms of the Sinaitic covenant. They became a holy nation (their status) and a kingdom of priests (their function). Numbers tells of Israel's successes and failures in living out the covenant as they made their way to the land of promise. The wilderness became a proving ground, an arena in which Israel had opportunity to display their commitment to the GOD who had called and commissioned them. It was historically their first opportunity to move beyond the place of covenant reception and enter the sphere of covenant implementation.
Israel's inability or, at least, refusal to exhibit its role as obedient mediator became clear again and again. They rebelled at Taberah and Kibroth Hattavah (11:3,34). They challenged Moses' authority as covenant representative (chap. 12). They rejected the spies' report that encouraged conquest of the land of Canaan (14:1-10). They rejected the priestly role of Aaron (chap. 16). They committed idolatry and immorality of Baal Peor (chap. 25). Each case of rebellion was met by divine displeasure and punishment. The constancy of the LORD, His faithfulness to His covenant pledge, however, remained unaltered. Indeed, the ancient Abrahamic promise that those who blessed Israel would be blessed and those who cursed Israel would be cursed remained intact (24:9). Even more remarkable, since it came from the lips of the pagan seer Balaam, was the great messianic revelation that "a star will come out of Jacob; a scepter will rise out of Israel" (24:17), a word that confirmed the function of Israel as the source of redemptive and reigning blessing for the whole world (compare Gen. 49:10).
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