Late 19th Century Foreign Policy

Until 1890 U.S. foreign policy generally has been described as ISOLATIONIST that means staying our of world affairs. That is somewhat of a exaggeration and "Political Neutrality" would be a better term. The U.S. had a long history of involvement in Latin American including the Monroe Doctrine of 1820s that claimed the western hemisphere as an American sphere of interest or "Big Sister" policy in Latin America. The U.S. had almost constant conflicts with Mexico in 1870s crossing the Mexican border over 20 times pursuing raiders.

The U.S was also involved in conflicts with Japan, Korea, England, Canada, and Spain. In 1864 sent one ship with multi-national force trying to force Japan to open trade. In 1871 sent 5 ships to Korea to open trade. A fight erupted and 200 Koreans killed. Relations were shakey for many years. In 1882 Korea opened to U.S. trade. In 1873 almost got into war with Spain when an American was executed after captured on a Cuban ship (Virginius episode) but compensation quietened the controversy. In 1880 the U.S. declared it would control any canal built in Central America and in 1887 almost war with Canada over fishing rights and arrests of American fishermen.

There was also some post-Civil War expansionism with the purchase of Alaska 1867 ($7.2 million) from Russia and the occupation of Midway Island in 1867 (unoccupied). The U.S. also had heavy involvement in the Hawaiian Islands, Samoan Islands, Dominican Republic, Virgin Islands (Danish), and Cuba.

Still, in comparison to after 1890, U.S. was uninvolved in world affairs. After 1890, the U.S. became IMPERIALISTIC or desired to be a world including owning colonies and influencing peoples of the world with U.S. culture. This was known as the "White Man's Burden." Many Anglos believed it was their duty to uplift their little "brown brothers" of the world and civilize them and give them U.S. culture that was superior to others. This inspired many in the U.S. to occupy other nations.

There were several reasons for the change. The frontier was gone and there was still the desire to expand markets, trade, and territory. Manifest Destiny was still alive and well. God wanted the U.S. to control more land. And Europeans provided the model of imperialism. And, in 1890 a book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History by ALFRED THAYER MAHAN introduced the theory that the U.S. must have a great navy to be a great power. To have a great navy must have ports throughout the world. This became known as "Mahanism."

Alfred Thayer Mahan

The first opportunities to become imperial power came in the 1890s in the HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. The U.S. began involvement in the 1790s when New England merchant ships arrived and developed active trade. By the 1820s, missionaries arrived and in the 1830s the first American established a sugar plantations (William Hooper). Meanwhile, disease wiped out 1/2 native population like the American Indians had experienced. Also, liquor and firearms were introduced. In the 1840s, American J. P. Judd was appointed Prime Minister under King Kamehameha III. In 1887 treaty with U.S. established Pearl Harbor as naval base and also allowed sugar exports to U.S. without tariff. They brought in Asians as laborers.

Then in 1890, the U.S. lifted tariffs on all sugar imports and gave U.S. growers a subsidy of 2 cents per pound. This created an economic crisis in Hawaii as their sugar then cost more than U.S. sugar to the consumer. Support for annexation into U.S. grew, especially among Americans in Hawaii. But in 1891, QUEEN LILIUOKALANI took over control of the islands and she tried to stop the U.S. takeover. In 1893 American planters staged a revolution to prevent that and asked the U.S. for help. The American minister ordered 150 Marines from a warship in Honolulu Harbor to aid rebels. The Queen surrendered and a provisional government was set up with Americans including President Sanford Dole of Dole Fruit Company even though only 5% of population was from the U.S. They requested annexation by U.S. President Harrison supported it but the Senate refused to pass a bill and President Cleveland opposed annexation since it was not supported by the Hawaiian people. President McKinley approved it in 1898 during Spanish-American War and the Hawaiian Islands became U.S. territory although not a state until 1959.

Queen Liliuokalani

With the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands, the U.S. began to get influences from there such as dance. Try out a Hawaiian dance or two such as the Beautiful Hula Dancers or Hawaiian Muscle Dance. Or how about a War Chant? Others are on the links page.

Meanwhile, while that was going on, the U.S. got into a war with Spain called the SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. It began as Civil War in Cuba in 1895 as rebels were trying to oust Spanish rule from Cuba. Americans tended to side with rebels and by 1898 there was public pressure to intervene especially from sensationalistic newspapers that promoted "JINGOISM" or extreme nationalism or patriotism and a pro-war stance. However, there was genuine concern, too. An estimated 200,000 Cubans had died but President McKinley was cautious and resisted but did send battleship to Havana Harbor to protect Americans in 1898. The Maine blew up on February 15, 1898. 250-260 Americans killed. Americans assumed Spain had done it and it led to U.S. declaration of war April 19. It would not be until the 1970s that divers discovered that The Maine blew itself up by an engine explosion but that was way too late.

The Maine

On entering the war on Cuba's behalf, the U.S. promised Cuban independence in the TELLER AMENDMENT. And, after five months it was all over. The Secretary of State John Hay described it as a "splendid little war." It was brief, there was a low casualty rate (400 battle deaths; 5,000 of disease), the U.S. won Guam, Puerto Rico and Cuba temporarily, and bought the Philippines for $20 million. Cuba granted independence but required to include the PLATT AMENDMENT in their constitution that allowed U.S. to intervene into Cuba and gave the U.S. Guantanamo Bay.

Just after this, the U.S. settled a conflict over the SAMOAN ISLANDS in 1899 by acquiring part of the Samoan Islands in the Pacific as result of a treaty with German and England. The U.S. wanted harbor at Pago Pago and had an 1878 treaty that established naval base that also established U.S. as arbitrator and agreed to share the islands with Germany and England. Natives had little authority and the three-way arrangement did not work. England was granted control of other Pacific territories, Germany given three islands, and the U.S. got the rest that the U.S. still has today. Also in 1899, U.S. claimed WAKE ISLAND in the Pacific.

Before proceeding, be sure to try some Samoan Dancing. Or this Samoan Dance See the links page too.

Once occupied, territories went through "Americanization" process which was part of the "white man's burden" or "benevolent assimilation" to uplift "backward peoples." As President McKinley said about the Filipinos: they were "unfit for self-government," and the U.S. must "educate..., uplift and civilize and Christianize them." Apparently he did not realize many were already Christian due to Spanish control. The U.S. also established naval stations and expanded markets. Some Americans objected and formed "anti-imperialistic leagues." But, many natives who went through "Americanization" also objected and that will lead to violence as we will see later.

Today: Guam still a territory, Puerto Rico has been given limited self-government and in 1917 U.S. citizenship; still controversial; official status "commonwealth," Philippines given independence in 1946 after big problems and eventually the U.S. completely expelled, Samao still a territory, as is Midway and Wake and Hawaiian Islands and Alaska are states. On the other hand, new cultures had been brought into the U.S. and influenced U.S. culture from Micronesians of Guam, Malaysians, Spanish, Chinese, Muslims of the Philippines, Africans & Spanish of Puerto Rico; and Polynesians of Samoa and Hawaii.

The last foreign policy issue of the late 19th century was the OPEN DOOR NOTE of 1899. Europe and Japan had monopolized trade with China and that angered U.S. businesses who got the government to issue the Open Door Note. The Note basically ordered Europe and Japan to allow the U.S. access to China's market. Both Europe and Japan ignored it at the time but when a war erupts in China they will offer U.S. access to China's market if the U.S. will assist with the war, the Boxer Rebellion that we will study later.