Species
    Salamanders as a group are moist skinned, four legged, damp habitat animals. There are approximately 380 species of salamanders on the planet, 18 of which are found in our range. Like all amphibians salamanders secrete chemicals from their skin. These secretions can be harmful to predators, toxic, or protect the salamander from desiccation in a dry environment. These compounds are responsible for the slimy feel of a salamander's skin. Many people have allergic reactions to handling salamanders. Mostly the toxins affect the mucous membranes in the nose and eyes. Always wash your hands after handling any amphibian.
    Lizards superficially represent salamanders and laymen often confuse the two. Lizards have dry skin covered with scales, toes that end in sharp claws, and an external ear opening found anterior to the neck. Throughout most of the range considered no lizards are found.
    All salamanders are carnivorous. The preferred food of most is invertebrates, although the Spring Salamander prefers other salamanders and all salamanders will eat almost anything that fits into their mouths.

Terminology
The study of salamanders, as the study of all groups of life, requires one to learn the words specific to the group. Some of those words are listed below.

• Caudal Fin- an extension of the upper keel on the tail. most often found in larvae
• Costal Groove- the grooves along a salamander's side
• Naso-labial Groove- a groove from a salamander's nostril to the front of its mouth (not found in all salamanders)
• Paratoid Gland- the large swelling just behind the eye on some salamanders, especially noticeable in the Dusky salamnders (Desmognathus sp.).
• Spermatophore- a jelly-like pouch capped with a packet of sperm created by the male which the female takes into her cloaca for breeding

Spring Salmander
Gyrinophilus p. porphyriticus
Chemung County, NY

Reproduction
    Most salamanders are bisexual with both male and female representatives (there are some weird exceptions.) Although the specifics of the reproductive cycles may vary, many of the basics hold true throughout the order. Environmental factors stimulate breeding responses. These factors include increasing or decreasing photoperiod, warm rains, and temperature. Males and females of many species must wander far distances from their home territories to ponds or streams where they can breed. Other species breed on the forest floor or in places far removed from water. Ritualized courtship is performed where males and females utilize a series of movements before mating. This is especially true of the mole salamanders. These movements are very specific from one species to another and are thought to help the animal recognize whether its potential mate is of the correct species. After courtship the male and female of some species enter amplexus. This occurs when the male clasps his forelegs around the female and does not let go. The act of amplexus stimulates the female to accept the male as her mate. The male releases his grip and deposits a spermatophore on the substrate where the mating process is taking place. The female then picks up the spermatophore with her cloaca and holds it within her body. Fertilization takes place internally. Individual species have differently shaped spermatophores making hybridization difficult. If a female picks up a spermatophore of the wrong species it simply will not fit and fertilization does not take place.  After picking up a spermatophore the female begins laying her eggs. As an egg passes through the cloaca the spermatophore releases its sperm, thus fertilizing the egg internally. As the egg is released the female covers it with a jelly-like coating.
    In many species this entire process happens under water where the eggs hatch and tadpoles become adult salamanders. In other species, notably the genus Plethodon, the process takes place outside of the water and the tadpoles undergo the entire metamorphosis process inside of the egg. The young hatch as miniature forms of the adults. The major disadvantage to this technique is that a lot of yolk is required to provide energy to the developing young. As a result fewer eggs are produced and the females of many of these species guard the eggs so that none will be lost.
    Hellbenders are unique among our salamanders in that fertilization is external and no spermatophores are produced. Hellbenders reproduce in a manner similar to fish in that the males and females release their gametes into the water where the eggs and sperm will randomly find each other to begin fertilization.

Families
Salamanders are in the Class Amphibia, Order Caudata. There are 18 species of salamanders in our range representing 5 Families.

Family Cryptobranchidae- Giant Salamanders

• Eastern Hellbender- Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis

Family Proteidae- Mudpuppies and Waterdogs

• Mudpuppy- Nectrurus maculosus maculosus

Family Ambystomatidae- Mole Salamanders

• Jefferson Salamander- Ambystoma jeffersonianum
• Blue-spotted Salamander- Ambystoma laterale
• Unisexual Ambystoma- Formerly Ambystoma tremblayi and platineum
• Spotted Salamander- Ambystoma maculatum
• Marbled Salamander- Ambystoma opacum
• Eastern Tiger Salamander- Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum

Family Salamandridae- Newts

• Red-spotted Newt- Notophthalmus viridescens viridescens

Family Plethodontidae- Lungless Salamanders

• Northern Dusky Salamander- Desmognathus fuscus fuscus
• Mountain Dusky Salamander- Desmognathus ochrophaeus
• Northern Two-lined Salamander- Eurycea bislineata bislineata
• Long-tailed Salamander- Eurycea longicauda longicauda
• Northern Spring Salamander- Gyrinophilus porphyriticus porphyriticus
• Four-toed Salamander- Hemidactylium scutatum
• Redback Salamander- Plethodon cinereus
• Northern Slimy Salamander- Plethodon glutinosus
• Wehrle's Salamander- Plethodon wehrlei
• Northern Red Salamander- Pseudotriton ruber ruber