| VOSTOK - USSR
The Vostok, missions, conducted by the Russians, were the first manned efforts in space. There were six Vostok missions. The Soviet Union’s Space Program, at this time, was a ways ahead of the United States’. RETURN TO TOP VOSTOK 1 On April 12, 1961, the Russian Cosmonaut Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin became the first human to ever enter space. He made one orbit that lasted one hour and 45 minutes. The Soviet spacecraft Vostok 1 traveled 27,000 km/hr (17,000 mph) and
reached a maximum orbital height (apogee) of 327 km (203 mi). RETURN TO TOP VOSTOK 6 Vostok 6 was the first space flight to be piloted by a woman, something
that the United States would not do until 1983. It was launched June 16, 1963, and orbited 48 times, and later returned Valentina Tereshskova safely to Russia. RETURN TO TOP MERCURY Mercury was America’s first manned spacecraft program. The Mercury capsule was small, cone shaped spacecraft with a blunt end which was a heat shield designed to slow the craft down along with retrorockets during reentry into the earth’s atmosphere. It weighed 1,360 kilograms
(3,000 pounds) and had special parachutes that would fire to gently land it in the water during its final descent. Inside a small contoured couch and a simple space suit accommodated the astronaut. The capsule was very small and consequently did not provide much room for movement. It was launched by a Redstone rocket. Just prior to Mercury the first astronauts were selected. All astronauts had to be younger than 40, have a college education, shorter than six foot, have 1,500 hours flying a
jet, have done test pilot work, and, even if these requirements were met then they had to pass rigorous IQ and physical tests. NASA ended up with Alan Shepherd, Virgil Grissom, John Glenn, Malcolm Carpenter, Walter Schirra, Leroy Cooper, and Donald Slayton as the first astronauts. RETURN TO TOP FREEDOM 7 On May 5, 1961, Alan Bartlett Shepard, Jr. became the first American to enter space. He made a short 15 minute flight and he did not orbit the earth. He reached an altitude 185 km (115 mi) in the small capsule. RETURN TO TOP FRIENDSHIP 7 February 20, 1962, John Herschel Glenn, Jr. became the first American to orbit the earth. He completed three consecutive orbits in three hours and four minutes. In that time he covered 130,00 km (about 81,000 mi.) RETURN TO TOP OTHER MERCURY FLIGHTS Between Freedom 7 and Friendship 7 there was a short flight with a similar ballistic trajectory as Freedom 7 flown by Virgil Grissom on July 21. After Friendship 7 three more Mercury flights were made by Malcolm Scott Carpenter, Walter Schirra, and Leroy Gordon Cooper, Jr., between 1962 and 1963.
RETURN TO TOP GEMINI
Project Gemini consisted of a series of missions that were designed to prepare the nation for travel to the moon. Many technological leaps were made during project Gemini. The Gemini space capsule itself could hold two men and was developed with the capability to dock with other spacecraft. It was designed to operate for much
longer times in space than any spacecraft before it had done. Ten missions had been completed by the end of the program. RETURN TO TOP GEMINI 1 AND GEMINI 2 The
first two Gemini missions were unmanned and were designed to test the capsule and prepare for the following missions. RETURN TO TOP GEMINI 3 Gemini 3 was the first manned mission in the Gemini program. It launched off March 23, 1965 Carrying astronauts Gus Grissom and John Young.
RETURN TO TOP GEMINI 4 Gemini 4 carried Edward White, the first man ever to perform an Extra Vehicular Activity, or EVA, in space. He used a pressurized gas jet
maneuvering device, and spent a total of 21 minutes in space. RETURN TO TOP GEMINI 6 AND GEMINI 7 In December 1965, Gemini 6 and Gemini 7 were both in orbit. during this time they came within a few feet of each other. The former carried Walter Schirra and Thomas Stafford, and orbited for about 20 hours. Gemini 7 carried Frank Borman and James Lovell and orbited for 334 hours, or 14 days. This provided essential data on how the body functioned in space if a journey to the moon was to be made.
RETURN TO TOP GEMINI 10, GEMINI 11, AND GEMINI 12 These three missions were the first to attempt docking maneuvers in space. All three successfully docked with objects
that had been placed in orbit before their flight. RETURN TO TOP APOLLO
The Apollo program was the nation’s first attempt to place a man on the surface of the moon. This was the space agency's most ambitious, expensive, and complex undertaking yet. By the
time Apollo had run its course around $24 billion (that is, about $80 billion with the current inflation rate) had been spent and three lives had been lost. The Apollo spacecraft consisted of two main separate parts, the Lunar Module and he Command module. The Command Module would be where the astronauts spent most of their time until they came within the moon’s orbit. Then, two astronauts would climb into the spidery looking Lunar Module, and descend to the surface of the moon, using
retrorockets to slow and guide them. After their business on the moon was finished, the main section of the Lunar Module would separate and fly to meet up with the Command module again. When earth was reached, the Lunar Module would be jettisoned, and the astronauts would plummet safely to earth in the top section of the command module. RETURN TO TOP APOLLO 1 Apollo 1 was scheduled to be the first mission utilizing the Apollo technology. During a routine check, the astronauts Edward White, Gus Grissom, and Roger Chaffee encountered some communications problems. A Power surge in the communications
system sparked a fire, which started to blaze uncontrollably in the cockpit because of the pure oxygen atmosphere. The astronauts were not able to open the hatch in time to escape from the deadly blaze, and died on January 27, 1967. RETURN TO TOP APOLLO 2 THROUGH APOLLO 6 Because of the disastrous Apollo 1 fire, the following six (the numbering system was not strictly followed) Apollo missions were unmanned, and the Apollo program went under a thorough review, and vehicle refinements and materials were made. These missions lasted from February 26, 1968 to April 4, 1968. APOLLO 7 The first manned Apollo mission was contained Walter Schirra, Walter Cunningham, and Don Eisele. Apollo 7 orbited Earth for eleven days, in which data was gained evaluating the Apollo spacecraft’s performance. RETURN TO TOP APOLLO 8 Apollo 8 was a major turning point for the Apollo program. It was the first major Apollo success. It contained astronauts Jim Lovell, Frank Borman,
and William Anders. The spacecraft left earth orbit and orbited the moon. On December 24, 1968, Apollo 8 broadcast a Christmas message all over the world on television. They became the first men to ever observe the backside of the moon. RETURN TO TOP APOLLO 9 The Apollo 9 flight was the first to dock with the Lunar Module, and consequently tested it in orbit around the moon. It was occupied by astronauts James McDivitt, David Scott, and Russell Schweickart. They came within miles of landing on the moon in the Lunar Module, and much information was gathered. RETURN TO TOP APOLLO 10 Apollo 10 was essentially a dress rehearsal for the first moon landing. John Young, Eugene Cernan, and Thomas Stafford took the vehicle to the moon, where they made 31 orbits and brought the lunar module within 10
miles of the surface, and later ascended and docked back up with the command module. The spacecraft then returned safely to earth. RETURN TO TOP APOLLO 11 Apollo 11 was
the climax in the space agency's moon shot program. The Apollo 11 spacecraft contained the astronauts Neil Armstrong, Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin, and Michael Collins. When they reached the moon Armstrong and Aldrin transferred to the Lunar Module. Once there they descended to the surface of the moon on the spidery shaped lander. There they spent six hours preparing before they disembarked from the spacecraft. Once they were suited up, Armstrong climbed down the ladder and said the
famous phrase, “That’s one small step for man, and one giant leap for mankind.” They then went on to put the flag and plaque out, and gathered the scientific materials. These included a seismometer (to measure moon quakes) and a reflector (to determine the exact distance from the moon to earth), which were left on the moon. They then ascended to rejoin the command module and return to earth. RETURN TO TOP APOLLO 12 Charles “Pete” Conrad, Alan Bean, and Richard Gordon were the second astronaut crew for the Apollo program to land a crew on the moon. Conrad and Bean landed north of the Riphaeus Mountains, a mere 600 feet from where the Surveyor 2 probe
had landed. They performed many scientific studies including bringing back a piece of Surveyor 2. They spent a total of 31 hours on the moon’s surface before ascending. RETURN TO TOP APOLLO 13 Possibly the most infamous of all early space missions, Apollo 13 is probably NASA’s greatest recovery from what was seemingly disastrous. Apollo 13 containing Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise was to be the third moon landing. Just before April 13, 1970, an oxygen tank exploded during a routine stirring of the oxygen tanks. The explosion rocked the ship, sent it off course, and depleted some of its oxygen supply. Due
to the careful guidance of Mission Control in Houston the spacecraft safely returned to earth, by utilizing the Lunar Module as a lifeboat to stay safely in while the Command Module remained damaged. No moon landing was made, but this mission demonstrated the ingenuity of the Mission Control team and the reliability of NASA’s personnel. RETURN TO TOP APOLLO 14 Alan Shephard, Stuart Roosa, and Edgar Mitchell were the astronauts that participated in the Apollo 14 mission in February 1961. Shephard and Mitchell landed in the Fra Mauro highlands and performed many scientific experiments, returning 96 pounds of rocks to earth.
RETURN TO TOP APOLLO 15 THROUGH APOLLO 17 Though largely unrecognized, the following Apollo missions gained enormous amounts of scientific knowledge. Among the things
discovered was crystalline rocks, white soil, ancient lava flows (which accounts for the moon’s smooth appearance), and rocks that were not thought to be in existence on the moon. Also, an ultraviolet telescope was set up, the moon buggy was used in exploration, and explosives were set off. The crews and other general information for the missions are as follows; - Apollo 15: Launched July 26, 1971. David Scott, James Irwin, Alfred Worden (Command Module pilot). Landed on edge of Mare Imbrium. Spent 18 hours on moon. First used four wheeled lunar rover.
- Apollo 16: Launched April 16, 1972. John Young, Charles Duke, Thomas “Ken” Mattingly (Command Module pilot). Landed
in the Descartes Highlands and explored Cayley Plains. Spent 20 hours on moon.
- Apollo 17: Launched December 6, 1972. Eugene Cernan, Harrisson Schmitt, Ronald Evans (Command Module pilot). Landed in the Taurus-Littrow Valley. Spent 22 hours on moon.
RETURN TO TOP APOLLO - SOYUZ This was the first mission involving both the USSR and the United States. The Apollo spacecraft used was the last from the the series of Apollo missions, and it was dubbed Apollo (ASTP). It was launched July 15, 1975. Its
counterpart in Russia was launched two days before it, and it was called Soyuz 19. The two spacecraft, containing Americans Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand, and Donald Slayton, and Russians Alexei Leonov and Valerri Kubasov, rendezvoused on July 17. They undocked July 19, and each returned home to their countries. RETURN TO TOP
THE SPACE SHUTTLE The Space Shuttle was the first ever reusable spacecraft to be
made, and was the first true aerospace vehicle. The space shuttle is launched as a rocket, and once in orbit, acts as a spacecraft, and when exiting orbit, lands like a plane. It was first launched in 1981, and since then has served as an object to deliver satellites into space, repair them, and to serve as a platform for various scientific experiments. The shuttle has the capability of staying in space for up to 30 days. The space shuttle has made 50% of all manned flights ever made into
space. RETURN TO TOP LAUNCHING The shuttle uses the same launch pad (39A) and the same assembly building (modified Saturn V) as Apollo. The actual launch itself requires only 45 people, while Apollo required 450 people. The shuttle has two large solid rocket boosters which assist in takeoff, then they are released and recovered in the Atlantic Ocean. The large external fuel take is discarded and not used any longer. RETURN TO TOP TRAINING The shuttle
program also has very sophisticated training methods. Johnson Space Center has a replica of the space shuttle called the Orbiter One G Trainer. Also present is a neutral bouancy trainer, designed to simulate the effect of working in weightlessness. They also have a remote manipulator task trainer, to train the astronauts in using the large payload arm. RETURN TO TOP EVA ((EXTRA - VEH ICULAR ACTIVITY) Nowadays, for EVA, a special backpack called Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) is
used. This pack is used outside the payload bay, and moves by propelling itself with 24 thrusters that are controlled by the astronaut. The first MMU was merely a hand held rocket gun, but the predecessor to the one in use now comes from the MMU used in the Skylab missions. The current MMU is 127 cm long and weighs 136 kg. It moves on three rotational and three translational axis. The suit that the astronaut wears protects against the vacuum of space, radiation, heat, and micrometeors. It is
cumbersome and stiff, and alternate suit designs are currently in research. RETURN TO TOP PAYLOAD The shuttle carries various items into orbit, which include commercial satellites, military satellites, and scientific projects. Sometimes the payload bay is converted into a research lab, and other times It will carry well padded and insulated cargo. The cargo is moved out into space by the Remote Manipulator System. Astronauts within the main
area of the shuttle control the arm. One famous piece of cargo was the Hubble Space Telescope, which was placed in space, then repaired after they found out it was not working correctly. RETURN TO TOP ASTRONAUTS
An astronaut is a person who works in space. Astronaut means “Sailor Among the Stars” in Greek. Most all of them work for NASA. There are three kinds of astronauts that are in the national space program. - Pilots
- Usually test pilots from the Air Force, Navy, or Marines
- Paid according to military rank
- Mission Specialist
- Conduct experiments, launch satellites, or perform spacewalks
- If affiliated with military get paid according to rank
- If not affiliated with military get paid according to equivalent civil service rank
- Payload Specialist
- Carry out expiriments with payload
- Most are top scientists that work for owner of payload
- Must be approved by NASA
RETURN TO TOP SELECTING All astronauts are selected in basically the same way. In 1985 NASA began selecting applications for
being an astronaut. All applicants must be US citizens, have at least a bachelors degree in engineering, biological or physical sciences, or math. There is no age limit, but a physical examination must be passed. To become a pilot an applicant must have 1000 hours of high performance jet flying under their belt, along with a height no greater than six foot four inches and no less than five foot four inches. The mission specialist must have three years of training, and must have an education in their field.
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