Computer software and hardware introduce additional problems to the preservation efforts of libraries and archives. Because common standards for computer software and hardware change so quickly, vast amounts of information stored in obsolete computers can no longer be accessed using modern equipment. As a result, libraries and archives risk forever losing access to valuable computer documents such as government statistical data and geological surveys. To ensure that original computer data remain accessible using contemporary equipment, libraries and archives must continually transfer these data to new formats. For example, every ten years the National Archives and Records Administration transfers all computer data and other electronic records to new formats. Because transferring electronic records can be an extremely costly and time-consuming process, most library conservators and archivists can transfer and preserve only those materials that they determine are of enduring value. As the quantity of computer-based records increases each year, the task of identifying which electronic materials warrant preservation becomes increasingly difficult. EIntellectual Freedom Libraries attempt to acquire, create, and provide access to all types of information, including information that is potentially controversial. In the United States, librarians have steadfastly defended this practice, which is known as intellectual freedom. Intellectual freedom encompasses a broad set of principles that support freedom of speech and freedom of the press. The most widely endorsed expression of intellectual freedom is the Library Bill of Rights, first drafted by the American Library Association in 1939. In recent years, the availability of controversial information over the Internet has presented new challenges to the principles of intellectual freedom.The Library Bill of Rights Since the mid-20th century, the American Library Association has presented the most persistent and influential defense of the library's role in protecting intellectual freedom. The ALA's Library Bill of Rights is a basic policy statement on access to libraries and library materials. It asserts that all libraries are forums of information and ideas, and that libraries should not exclude certain materials because of the origin, background, or views of the author or others involved in the creation of the materials. Americans first expressed their ideas about intellectual freedom by condemning the censorship of specific publications. In 1939 certain libraries around the country began censoring the novel The Grapes of Wrath, by American author John Steinbeck. Some librarians removed the book from their shelves because they considered it immoral, but most who censored the novel opposed the social and political views advanced by the author. The ALA responded to the censorship of The Grapes of Wrath and other books by adopting in 1939 the first draft of the Library Bill of Rights. Since then, the ALA has revised, amended, and interpreted the document several times, often in response to pressures against specific publications or library practices. Over the years, the ALA has broadened the scope of the Library Bill of Rights beyond opposition to censorship. The ALA now encourages libraries to ensure that every member of the community has free access to library materials, regardless of an individual's origin, age, background, or views about society or politics. In addition, the ALA asserts that libraries must strive to protect the confidentiality of patrons' circulation records to ensure that every individual may freely use all library materials without fear of reprisal. The ALA also encourages libraries to protect their librarians' own intellectual freedom by guaranteeing them rights to free expression without fear of professional reprisal. Finally, the ALA suggests that libraries should carefully determine whether they may advocate social or political causes without compromising their objectivity in the selection of materials. E2Intellectual Freedom and the Internet The Internet has introduced unique challenges to libraries' defense of intellectual freedom. Since the Internet emerged as a mainstream communications medium in the mid-1990s, libraries have provided Internet access in an effort to expand the scope of information available to users. However, many people feel that some content available on the Internet, particularly pornography, should not be available for viewing in libraries. These people are particularly concerned that children will gain access to sexually explicit materials through Internet computer terminals in libraries. Citing free-speech protections, U.S. federal courts have repeatedly blocked laws designed to protect children from accessing pornography on the Internet, and libraries are paying close attention to these rulings. In a unanimous decision in 1997, the United States Supreme Court struck down the Communications Decency Act, a 1996 law that made it a crime to make patently offensive material available to minors over computer networks. In the Court's decision, Justice John Paul Stevens wrote that the interest in encouraging freedom of expression in a democratic society outweighs any theoretical but unproven benefit of censorship.Lawmakers responded in 1998 by passing a narrower antipornography bill, the Child Online Protection Act . This law required commercial World Wide Web sites to ensure that children could not access material deemed harmful to minors. In 1999 a federal judge blocked that bill as well, ruling that it too would dangerously restrict constitutionally protected free speech. Despite legislative and community efforts to limit children's access to particular sites on the Internet, the ALA maintains that, in accordance with the Library Bill of Rights, libraries must support access to information on all subjects that serve the needs or interests of each user, regardless of the user's age or the content of the material. Accordingly, the ALA opposes efforts to block library users' access to specific types of content on the Internet, including efforts to block access to pornographic content. Furthermore, it argues that providing connections to the Internet and other electronic networks is not the same as selecting and purchasing material for a library's collection. The ALA therefore maintains that users themselves must assume responsibility for determining what material is appropriate. Likewise, the ALA argues that parents and legal guardians who are concerned about their children's use of electronic resources should provide guidance to their own children rather than requiring libraries to do so. However, the ALA does acknowledge that some information accessed electronically may not meet a library's standards for the content of its own collection. Many parent advocacy groups have expressed concern that the ALA's defense of intellectual freedom has had the unintended effect of allowing children to view pornographic materials on the library's computers. Some local public libraries have responded to these concerns by reserving specific Internet terminals for children. The libraries have equipped these computers with special software designed to filter out any pornographic material while allowing access to all other materials. Critics of filtering software claim that it blocks access to numerous sites that have nothing to do with pornography or sexually explicit material. In 1997 the ALA issued a strong statement against the use of filtering software by libraries, affirming that the use of such software to block access to constitutionally protected speech violates the Library Bill of Rights. FServices for People with Disabilities Until the 1960s very few libraries offered services specifically designed for people with disabilities. Since then, however, many libraries have made significant modifications to their buildings and to their collections in an effort to provide the disabled community with access to library resources and services. For instance, libraries now serve the needs of the visually impaired with reading materials printed in the Braille system and large-print magazines and books for users with limited sight. In the United States, the passage in 1990 of the Americans with Disabilities Act led to significantly greater access to library resources for people with disabilities. The ADA provided disabled persons with protection against discrimination and guaranteed them access to public services and accommodations. Libraries complied with the law by, among other things, adding entrance ramps and elevators to provide wheelchair users greater access to library buildings. They also widened aisles in the book stacks to allow these same patrons easier access to library materials. The Library of Congress's National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped issues a catalog of recordings on compact disc and cassette. It also lists books available in large-print and Braille editions. A cooperative network of libraries throughout the country circulates these materials to make them available to as many users as possible. Libraries in the United States have also assisted with the development of Radio Information Service, a closed-circuit radio reading service for people who are visually impaired. Volunteers for this service read newspapers, books, novels, and short stories for users via closed-circuit radio. Modern technology has expanded library services for people with impaired vision and hearing. For example, some libraries have introduced computers with the Versa Braille system, which translates what is appearing on a computer screen into Braille characters. Some libraries also feature a device called an Optacon, which converts print or computer output into a tactile form. .
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