By the 4th century AD, Rome was in decline as the world's political and cultural center, and, as attacks by invaders intensified, Rome's strong library tradition began to disintegrate. The center of the fading Roman Empire during this period of decline moved eastward to Constantinople , and the Byzantine Empire became a haven for many great book collections. Emperor Constantine the Great copied the Roman pattern of dividing collections by language when he established his own palace library in 330 AD. In subsequent centuries Constantinople's churches accumulated small libraries of liturgical manuscripts, while some of its monasteries built impressive collections numbering nearly 10,000 items. Christians dispersed (and in many cases destroyed) Roman library collections when they defeated Roman paganism during the 4th century AD. However, early Christians believed in using books and libraries to disseminate and preserve their religious writings. Christians carried on the Roman concept of the library in collections established by several Christian leaders, such as Saint Damascus I in the 4th century and Saint Gregory I in the 6th century. EThe Middle Ages In the 6th century Catholic bishops in Europe began taking control of all church property, including manuscript collections in libraries. Thereafter, library collections became communal church possessions that could be copied and distributed relatively freely. For about the next 1,000 years during the Middle Ages , medieval libraries in Europe acquired, copied, and disseminated texts by relying on correspondence between monasteries. Eventually, these libraries developed a system of procedures to organize and classify their collections. From this mix of activities emerged a highly decentralized system of libraries scattered throughout Europe. By the beginning of the Middle Ages, the papyrus scroll was no longer the common text format. It had been replaced by the parchment codex, an early form of book consisting of bundles of folded parchment sheets inscribed on both sides. These sheets were stitched together and placed between protective covers. In codex form these manuscripts carried more text in less space, and they were easier to transport and read than were papyrus scrolls. In addition, their bindings were easier to decorate, and their compactness allowed church officials to move them in and out of closed storage spaces within walls, where manuscripts were kept with other treasures. The church clergy stored less-valued texts in armaria, or book cupboards, which were generally situated in more-accessible church locations. To enhance quality and quantity of manuscript production, a church official often established a separate room, called a scriptorium, in which a carefully selected group of skilled clergy-known as monastic scribes-copied valuable religious texts. The scribes almost invariably wrote their manuscripts in Latin, which allowed speakers of different vernacular languages to understand and communicate in a single, universal mode of expression. They used quill pens to copy the Bible, liturgical books, Latin grammars, and small numbers of secular books onto parchment. Because medieval libraries did not follow the directives of any centralized authority, they frequently developed special techniques in the production of manuscripts. For example, certain scribes became experts at creating elaborate texts known as illuminated manuscripts, which were embellished with beautiful color illustrations and were often bound with fine leather set with jewels. By the middle of the 6th century, leaders of the Christian monastic order known as the Benedictines were requiring their monks to read daily. Thus, as missionary monks traveled throughout rural Europe to establish relatively isolated monasteries, they made sure to include space for libraries. For example, the monasteries of Saint Gall in Switzerland, Lindisfarne in England, Fulda in Germany, and Bobbio in Italy all maintained outstanding libraries. Many of these rural monasteries provided secure quarters for collections of sacred manuscripts that urban church libraries could no longer provide. In the mid-7th century, for example, Benedict Biscop, an English abbot, traveled five times to Rome, returning with pack animals loaded with valuable books. In the late 8th century the English scholar Alcuin established two libraries in Aachen in what is now Germany-one for the court of Charlemagne, king of the Franks, the other for the palace school. In addition, Alcuin built a library at Tours in France after he became bishop there. By contemporary standards, monastery libraries were small. Before 1200 most monasteries housed fewer than 100 books and manuscripts. Very few monastery collections exceeded 300, in large part because, on average, the approximately 40 scribes at work in each monastery scriptorium could reproduce no more than two manuscripts per year. Nonetheless, the copying and distribution of books and manuscripts spread Latin culture to monasteries located throughout rural Europe. By perpetuating copying practices, over time monastic scribes also helped standardize orthography , calligraphy , and punctuation. Europe and its libraries changed substantially during the High Middle Ages, which lasted from the mid-11th century through the 13th century. Europeans had increased contact with distant civilizations through the efforts of explorers such as Marco Polo and through the wars fought by soldiers in the Crusades. Europe also experienced increased production and consumption within an emerging money-based economy. This began to generate surplus wealth that could be used for patronage and investment.
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